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PBINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 



INTRODUCTION 

Grammar is merely an orderly exposition of 
_ the correct forms in speech. It has nothing to 
do with the graces of expression, the beauty of 
language. Its sole office is to present a method 
through which we may determine just what 
is a proper usage of words in their various 
relationships to one another. 

Correct speech depends for its authority 
wholly on the fact that it is the kind of speech 
employed by persons of education and refine- 
ment. One who has been reared in a better 
class of society, and has had the advantages 
of education and of constant association with 
cultured persons, speaks naturally with a 
certain degree of elegance. On the other 
hand, one not thus fortunate in the method 
of his bringing up naturally speaks a ruder 
language. Here, indeed, hypocrisy is quite 
impossible. Most sins are capable of being 
more or less concealed, but there is no hiding 
the offenses of an illiterate tongue. The am- 
bitious individual, who speaks badly from lack 

[S] 



INTRODUCTION 



of training, must set himself to serious study 
if he would improve his condition in this 
matter and must avail himself of all possible 
opportunities to read and hear English of the 
better sort. 

First and foremost, the student should 
master the elements of grammar. Nor need 
he be alarmed by this necessity. The task is 
by no means a hard one. There is, in fact, 
very little to be learned, if only the essentials 
are considered. 

The usual grammar displays a mass of tech- 
nical terms that may well dismay the student. 
The multiplied details of this new vocabulary 
are confusing, and they are, as well, quite 
unnecessary. In the pages that follow, the 
author has omitted such terminology when- 
ever he deemed their omission judicious. He 
has included technical terms whenever neces- 
sary, but only after such explanations as 
should render understanding easy. 

In the study of grammar, the student has 
as advantage unknown in connection with any 
other subject for learning. This advantage 
lies in the fact that he is already master of 
grammar as a whole. He has now to learn 
only a few details. Such mastery is the result 
[6] 



INTRODUCTION 



of his having learned to talk. In ordinary 
speech, he unconsciously applies all the prin- 
ciples of grammar. Compared with the total 
of his utterances, the amount of error is very 
small. If the student will bear this gratifying 
truth in mind, he will avoid any danger of 
discouragement, and he will find particular 
pleasure in the discovery of his faults. For 
he will know that they are so few in number as 
to place the correcting of them easily within 
his power. 



[7] 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Introduction 5 

PART I 

ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR 

L The Noun 13 

11. The Pronoun 20 

III. The Adjective 31 

IV. The Verb 37 

V. The Adverb 82 

VI. The Preposition 86 

VII. The Conjunction 88 

VIII. The Interjection 90 

IX. The Sentence 91 

X. Parsing 94 

PART II 

STUDY OF DETAILS 

I. Masculine and Feminine Forms ... loi 

II. Distinctive Features 103 

IIL Vulgarisms 132 

IV. Punctuation 136 

V. Capitals 139 

VI. Conclusion 140 

[9] 



part I 
ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR 



Grammar Made Easy 



CHAPTER I 

THE NOUN 

All the words in our language are divided 
into eight classes. Grammar is the science 
that deals with these eight classes of words, in 
their various phases, and especially in their 
relations to one another. 

The eight divisions are as follows : 

Noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, 
preposition, conjunction and interjection. 

The word noun means literally merely a 
name. The use of the term is conveniently 
limited to designate the name of anything. 
Thus, the word water is the name given to that 
liquid which is made up of two parts of hydro- 
gen and one part of oxygen. The word water 

C13] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



is a noun. A great body of salt water is called 
a sea. That word sea also is a noun. When 
water freezes, the term ice is used to describe 
it in the solid state. Ice^ again, is a noun. 
So, too, is the word steam. And as of watery 
so of everything that is, or has been, or shall 
be. Whatever the name, it is a noun. The 
thing named may be the most abstract of 
abstract ideas, or it may be the most concrete 
among the substantial things about us. What- 
ever it is, the name is a noun. The word 
economy is a noun ; likewise, the word prodi- 
gality. Equally nouns are the words caty 
dogy Leviathan. 

It is usual to separate nouns broadly as 
being either common or proper. Common 
nouns are those names applied to describe in- 
dividual members of groups. Cat and dog are 
common nouns. Indeed, the vast preponder- 
ance of the names are common nouns. This 
will be instantly appreciated when the fact is 
understood that the proper noun is the special 
name given to a certain person or thing. In 
the example given above, the name Leviathan 
is a proper noun. It is spelled with a capital, 
as being the name of a ship. It is the proper 
name of the vessel, and because it is the 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



proper name, we made use of the same word, 
proper, in describing the noun. 

If we were to ^pell the word with a small /, 
using it, not as the name of a modern ship, 
but as the name of a prehistoric sea monster — • 
that old leviathan of which the Hebrew Scrip- 
tures tell — then the name would designate 
only an individual in an animal group, and 
it would be a common noun. 

When we speak of a man named Smithy the 
word Smith is a proper noun. But when we 
speak of the smith at his forge, the word smith 
is a common noun. Jack and Jill and every 
other name of a person, first name, middle 
name, last name, all are proper nouns. The 
distinctive name given to either a person or a 
thing which is the individual appellation of 
that object, is a proper noun. 

Nevertheless, the distinction between com- 
mon nouns and proper nouns is of no vital 
importance in the study of grammar. The 
student requires a knowledge of the terms as a 
matter of convenience, rather than for any 
practical benefit in the mastery of language. 

Another attribute of nouns to which gram- 
marians usually give considerable attention is 
the gender. This may be either masculine, 

[IS] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



feminine, or neuter. Whatever is neither mas- 
culine nor feminine, must be neuter. As every- 
one knows, human beings are divided into two 
sexes: the masculine and the feminine. The 
same distinction of sex is indicated by the 
words male and female, which include in their 
scope not only humanity, but all living 
creatures. The name of each individual crea- 
ture has its gender in accordance with the 
sex of that creature. The noun king is mas- 
culine gender; the noun queen is feminine 
gender. The noun bull is masculine gender; 
the noun cow is feminine gender. 

It should be noted that where the sex is 
deemed unimportant, as sometimes in refer- 
ence to animals or children, they are treated as 
neuter. 

A vast advantage is enjoyed by the student 
of English over his fellow students of other 
languages by reason of the simplicity that 
characterizes our use of genders. In those 
other languages, the distinctions as to the 
different genders are artificial. Moreover, 
they demand distinctive changes in the forms 
of words according to the variations in gender. 
Indeed, in many foreign tongues, the matter 
of gender presents enormous difficulties to the 
[16] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



student. Our own speech, however, is won- 
derfully blest in this regard. The English 
gender is determined absolutely by the sex of 
the object named — or by its lack of any sex. 
The names of all males are masculine nouns; 
of all females, feminine nouns. And, if a 
thing is neither male nor female, its name 
is a noun of neuter gender. Furthermore, 
there are practically no variations in the 
forms of English nouns to represent the 
different genders. The student may well be 
thankful. 

Another attribute of the noun is called per- 
son, which may be either, the first, second, 
or third. When the noun is the name of the 
one who speaks, it is in the first person ; when 
it is the name of the one to whom the speech 
is addressed, it is in the second person; when 
it is the name of a person or thing concerning 
which the speech is uttered, it is in the third 
person. 

The foregoing brief statement is sufficient 
for the present. The usefulness of this method 
of classification will become apparent later on. 

The third attribute of nouns is number. 
The number may be either singular or plural. 
Where only a single person or thing is con- 

[17] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



cerned, the noun is in the singular number. 
When there are more than one person or thing 
concerned, the noun is in the plural number. 
The plural of English words is formed by add- 
ing either s, or esy to the singular. There are 
some exceptions to this rule, but they are very 
few comparatively, and most of them are so 
familiar to everybody that they need no 
enumeration. 

Another attribute of the noun is the case. 
This may be the nominative, or the possessive, 
or the objective. In our language, the form 
of the noun is precisely the same whether it 
is in the nominative case, or in the objective. 
The difference between the two is concerned 
with the noun's relations to other words. Thus, 
the subject of a verb is described always as 
being in the nominative case, while the object 
of a verb or preposition is always in the ob- 
jective case. A full explanation of these 
relationships and the significance of the nomi- 
native and the objective cases will be given 
in connection with those two parts of speech, 
the verb and the preposition. 

The possessive case is the only one for 
English nouns that has a distinctive form of 
its own. This is secured by adding 's to the 
Ci8] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



noun. The sign indicates possession. We 
write the boy^s hat, and the 's, following the 
noun boy, shows that the hat belongs to the 
boy. The usage for the possessive case in con- 
nection with plural words makes the addition 
of the (0 alone suffice. Ordinarily, too, when 
a singular noun ends in s^ the possessive case is 
formed by adding merely the ('). In England, 
however, it is customary to follow the (') with 
an s in such words. Thus we write James' hat ; 
but a London street sign reads St. James's 
Street. 

A noun may be used to define another noun 
in some manner by being placed immediately 
after such other noun, with which it is then 
said to be in apposition. Thus in the sentence, 
"The newcomer, a stranger, bowed,'' the noun 
stranger is in apposition with the noun new- 
comer^ which it defines. Such a noun in ap- 
position has the same case as the principal 
noun, whether this case be the nominative, 
the possessive, or the objective. 

A pronoun also may be thus used in ap- 
position. 



C19] 



CHAPTER II 

THE PRONOUN 

The nature of a pronoun is much more com- 
plex than that of the noun, and it would offer 
serious difficulty to the student, were it not 
for the fact that in learning to talk he has 
really mastered the various uses of all the 
different pronouns, so that now he has to 
acquire only a little knowledge in description 
of things already practically familiar. He is 
well acquainted with the pronouns; even the 
diverse forms in the declension of them have 
been mastered. He needs, in addition, merely 
an understanding of certain terms that serve 
in explaining grammatical relationships. 

The literal meaning of the word pronoun ex- 
actly defines it. It is a word used for a noun 
— that is, it is employed as a substitute. By 
the use of a pronoun, we have a simple and 
convenient means of speaking or writing 
clearly, while avoiding tiresome repetitions of 
a particular word. 

[20] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



The noun in place of which a pronoun is used 
is called the antecedent. > This word means 
literally that going before. Ordinarily, a noun 
is first used, and afterward the pronoun takes 
its place. But, in certain cases to which 
attention will be given later on, a pronoun is 
used without any antecedent having been ex- 
pressed. Sometimes, too, a pronoun may 
itself serve as the antecedent for a following 
pronoun. 

Like nouns, pronouns have gender, person, 
number and case. It is a rule in all languages 
that a pronoun must agree with its antecedent 
in gender, person and number. In English, 
the application of this rule is very simple, 
owing to the fact that our language is not 
highly inflected. 

A personal pronoun is one that varies in its 
form according as it is a substitute for a noun 
of the first person, or of the second, or of the 
third. The inflection of these pronouns is the 
most elaborate that we have in our English 
tongue. These pronouns are: /, thou^ he, shcy 
ity wCy you and they. Of these, the first five 
are in the singular number, and the other 
three are in the plural. These are declined 
as follows : 

[21] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 





First Person 






Singular 


Plural 


Nominative : 


I 


we 


Possessive : 


my^ mine 


our, ours 


Objective: 


me 
Second Person 


us 




Singular 


Plural 


Nominative : 


thou 


you 


Possessive : 


thy, thine 


your, yours 


Objective: 


thee 


you 



In the declensions of the first person and of 
the second, there is no distinction for the pro- 
nouns to indicate gender. The gender of 
the nouns for which the pronouns stand may 
be either masculine or feminine, but only the 
one form of the pronouns is employed. The 
matter is otherwise in reference to the third 
person. In the instance of these pronouns, 
the form in the singular varies in accordance 
with the gender of the noun represented by 
the pronoun, whether masculine, feminine or 
neuter. 



[22] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Third Person 
Singular 

Mascuiine Feminine Neuter 
Nominative: he she it 

Possessive: his her^ hers its 

Objective: him her it 

Plural 
All genders 
Nominative : they 
Possessive: their ^ theirs 

Objective: them 

It will be understood, of course, that when 
a pronoun of the third person is used, its gender 
must be the same as that of the noun for which 
it stands. 

Our language permits the use of a neuter 
pronoun in the third person when it is intended 
to disregard the sex of the noun for which the 
pronoun stands. Thus it and its are com- 
monly employed when referring to an animal, 
when the sex of the creature is unimportant. 
Similarly, too, it and its are often used when 
the reference is to a child. Although, in such 
cases, a neuter pronoun is permissible, this 

[23] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



fact by no means implies that the antecedent 
noun is of the neuter gender. The noun 
animal or the noun child is usually described 
as of a common gender. This really means 
that the animal or the child is of an indeter- 
minate gender. There is a gender possessed 
by such a noun, but we are not taking heed 
to it for the moment, and so save ourselves 
trouble by substituting a neuter pronoun. The 
student must observe, however, that as a rule 
nouns of common gender are not represented 
by neuter pronouns, but, instead, the gender 
of the pronoun varies according to the cir- 
cumstances. Thus, in using a pronoun of the 
third person in place of the noun friend^ he or 
his or him would be right, if the individual 
referred to were a man; while shcy or hers^ or 
her would be right, if the individual were a 
woman. So, too, of similar nouns, such as 
neighbor^ enemy , teacher^ and the many others 
like, for which the pronouns are either mascu- 
line or feminine. It should be noted, also, 
that when the gender of such a noun is 
unknown, it is customary to use the masculine 
pronoun. 

Where alternate forms are given in the 
declension for the possessive case, there is a 
[24] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



distinction in their use. Ordinarily, the forms 
myy ouTy thy^ your^ her and their arc employed 
when the pronoun is followed by a noun. 
Thus, we say: ^'My hai^' ''our hat^' etc. The 
mine, ours^ yours^ hers^ and theirs are em- 
ployed when there is no noun following them. 
Thus, we say: "The cap is mine^'' "'The 
cap is oursy'' etc. 

But both his and its are used with a noun 
following, or without a noun following. For 
example, "The man has his treasure, and that 
treasure is his'' In this sentence, the first 
his is followed by a noun, while the second is 
not. 

A compound personal pronoun is formed by 
adding self or selves to either the nominative 
or the objective case of the personal pronoun. 
Thus we have my self y ourselves y thy self y yourself y 
yourselves y himself y her s elf y its elf y themselves. It 
will be observed that in the making of these 
compounds the possessive case of the prefix 
is used in some instances, but not in all. 
The objective case of the prefix is used in 
himself and themselves simply as a matter 
of convenience, since the words hisself and 
theirselves would be awkward either to speak 
or to hear. 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN 

A demonstrative pronoun refers directly to 
the noun for which it stands. There are but 
two pronouns of the sort : this and that in the 
singular, these and those in the plural. This is 
used in reference to an antecedent that is some- 
how close; while that distinguishes something 
farther away. For example, we say, '' This is 
my seat, and that is yours.'' " This is the day 
we celebrate,'' is spoken of the present time. 
For the more distant date, that would usually 
be employed. Thus: '' That wzs a wonderful 
day." It should be noted that these demon- 
strative pronouns may be used to indicate 
a clause or a sentence instead of a single noun. 
For example, in such a sentence as the follow- 
ing: "Will he ever return? Answer me ^^a^." 
Here, the antecedent of that is the entire in- 
terrogative sentence. 



THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN 

The interrogative pronouns are for use in 

questions. They are only three in number, 

and all of them are employed also as relative 

pronouns. They are, who, which and what. 

[26] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



The only one of the three that has a declension 
is who. The forms are as follows: 

Nominative: who 
Possessive : whose 
Objective: whom 

These forms remain the same whether the 
interrogative pronoun is masculine or feminine, 
whether singular or plural. 

And as the forms of this one interrogative 
pronoun remain the same whatever the gender, 
person and number, so which and what are in- 
variable. They remain wholly unchanged also 
in the different cases. Possession in the case of 
these two pronouns is signified by of preceding 
the pronoun. 

Who and its variants, whose and whom^ are 
employed when the pronoun refers to a person 
or persons, whether the noun be masculine 
or feminine. 

Which, on the other hand, is much broader 
in scope, and is commonly used in its interroga- 
tive significance for both human beings and 
for animals, and also for objects of any sort. 

The student must bear in mind that the 
interrogative pronoun lacks always an ante- 
cedent. This is necessarily so from the nature 

[27] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



of its function. It serves to direct the inquiry 
as to some person or thing unknown. 

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN 

A relative pronoun is one that refers to an 
expressed antecedent of which something is 
said. These pronouns are who^ which, what, 
and that. The only one of these that has 
varying forms for the different cases is who, 
which as a relative pronoun follows exactly 
its forms as an interrogative pronoun — 
namely: 

Nominative: who 

Possessive : whose 

Ob j ect i ve : whom 

These forms are the same for masculine and 
feminine, for singular and plural. There is 
no change for gender or number or case for 
which, what and that. Of before the pronoun 
takes the place of the possessive case. Ex- 
amples of the use of these pronouns are as 
follows: ^'I knew a boy who sang.'" "I knew 
many boys who sang.'' ^'Behold the scene 
that all patriots love.'' ''There are many 
countries that I like." "Swimming, which is 
most pleasant, is also capital exercise." ''The 
monkey eats nuts, which are a nourishing food." 

[28] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



The relative pronoun may have a clause for 
its antecedent, as well as a noun. Thus: 
*'He is a lover of all sports, which keeps him 
from growing old." 

The distinctions in the matter of gender 
concerning relative pronouns are exactly those 
already set forth as to the interrogative pro- 
nouns. 

Which and zvhat are used only in the third 
person, but who and that are employed for any 
one of the three persons. 

The terminations ever znd soever are some- 
times added to zvhoy which and whaty thus 
broadening the scope of the pronoun. They 
are added also to the objective case of who to 
form whomever 2ind whomsoever. These combi- 
nations are called compound relative pronouns. 

THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN 

Where the object to which the pronoun 
refers is indefinite, the pronoun itself is termed 
indefinite. Such pronouns are another^ any^ 
both, eachy either, neither, none, one, other, some, 
such. 

There are no variations for cases in these 
words. Another, each, either, and neither are 
singular pronouns, having no plural. Some 

C29] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



and such are used in both numbers. Any and 
both are limited to the plural. There are dis- 
tinctive forms for singular and plural for the 
pronouns one, ones and other, others. None 
is strictly a singular pronoun, but it is com- 
monly used also in a plural sense. 

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES 

Most of the pronouns may be used before 
a noun or pronoun as adjectives to qualify 
the meaning. In this use, they are also termed 
adjective pronouns. All of the indefinite 
pronouns may be thus employed, with the 
single exception of none. Of the interrogatives 
and relatives, which and what serve as pro- 
nominal adjectives; so, also, the demonstra- 
tives, this, these and that, those. 

It should be noted that neither who nor 
none is thus used. 



[303 



CHAPTER III 

THE ADJECTIVE 

An adjective is a word that describes a noun 
or pronoun. In the phrases, a big dogy the small 
horsey the thin woody the open seUy the words 
higy small y thiny open, are adjectives, since each 
of them serves to define in some particular 
way the noun following it. But it should be 
noted that the adjective is not necessarily 
next to the noun or pronoun which it modifies 
or limits. Thus, descriptive adjectives are 
often found separated from the noun or pro- 
noun by a verb. "'The house is warmy' offers 
an example, for in this sentence warm is an 
adjective that describes the noun house, but 
it is separated from the noun by the word is. 

The numbers, oney twOy three y foury fivey and 
so on, are commonly employed as adjectives. 
Thus we say, three meny or seven womeny etc. 
Such adjectives are often termed limiting 
adjectives, and in this same class are included 
other adjectives of quantity or measure, either 

[31] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



in space or time. Examples are such words as 
single^ doubley hourly^ annually^ and the like. 

While an adjective ordinarily precedes its 
noun, it always follows a pronoun. For ex- 
ample, ''We saw him alive and well an hour 
before it happened.'' In this sentence, the 
words alive and well are adjectives modifying 
the pronoun him. 

Adjectives in English, contrary to the usage 
in most other languages, never change their 
form, to indicate gender, person, number or 
case. 

The only change made in an adjective is in 
order to signify more or less effect from its 
qualifications of a noun or pronoun. There 
are three degrees in the comparison of ad- 
jectives, as it is termed. In the positive 
degree, no comparison with another object 
is presented by the use of the adjective. In 
using the words, the smart hoy, no reference is 
made to any other boy, and the adjective, 
smarty has its simple form, unmodified. But 
when we speak of the smarter hoy^ the words 
carry with them a distinct reference to another 
boy less smart. Here, the ending er is added 
to the adjective smarts and this termination is 
the sign of the comparative degree, in which 
C32] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



one person or thing is compared with another. 
The word more preceding the adjective has 
the same meaning as the suffix er added to the 
adjective. In such comparative use, the ad- 
jective may indicate either more or less of its 
quahty, but in the latter use, it is preceded 
by the word less. Thus, in the sentence above, 
the phrase, another boy less smarts shows the 
comparative degree of the adjective, but in- 
dicated here by the word less preceding it. 

As the words imply, the superlative de- 
gree is that of an adjective expressing the 
greatest or the least of its quality for its noun 
or pronoun as compared with other objects. 
For example, the greatest man in the worlds 
contains the assertion that the man spoken of 
is superior to every other man. Est is here 
the ending by which the superlative degree 
is indicated. 

Words of one syllable form the compar- 
ative by adding er to the adjective, and the 
superlative by adding est. Er and est are 
also used often with words of two syllables. 
More and most^ less and leasty are employed 
for the comparative and superlative respec- 
tively with words of two or more syllables. 

Most is added to the word to form the super- 

[333 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



lative in the case of a few adjectives. Fore-^ 
most gives a familiar example of this usage. 

It should be noted that the comparative 
degree includes only two objects or two groups 
of objects, but the superlative includes more 
than two. In the comparative degree, than 
precedes the object of the comparison. For 
example: ^'He is younger than she is.'' Of 
precedes the object in the superlative degree, 
ordinarily. Thus, we say: "the happiest oj 
men.'' But other words may be used, for ex- 
ample m — "the happiest man in the world." 
Often, the object may be omitted, and merely 
implied from the nature of the statement. 
For example, "The happiest man is he who 
knows peace." 

THE NUMERAL 

Numerals are adjectives of number. They are 
divided into two classes, cardinals and ordinals. 

The cardinals merely indicate number, 
without any qualification. For example : one 
man^ seven women, a thousand children. 

The numerals are employed also as nouns. 
For example: ''Seventy-five were killed in 
the accident." When serving as a noun, the 
cardinal may be used as a plural word. 

1:343 



GRAMMAR MADE ESAY 



The ordinals signify a certain place in a 
series of numbers. They are formed usually 
by a suffix to the cardinal. But the ordinals 
first and second are not derived from the car- 
dinals one and two. The other ordinals are 
thirds fourth^ fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, 
tenth, eleventh and twelfth, which show a close 
relation to the corresponding cardinals. The 
ordinals of the 'teens are formed by the ad- 
dition of th to the cardinals — thirteenth, four- 
teenth, etc. The th is used also regularly for 
all the higher numbers, such as twentieth, 
thirtieth, hundredth, thousandth, etc. 

Ordinals also are used as nouns, usually with 
the preceding. For example, " The first shall 
be last." 

THE ARTICLE 

There are two articles: the indefinite, 
which may be either a or an, and the definite 
the. 

An is the form used before a word begin- 
ning with a vowel sound, while a is used 
before a word beginning with a consonant 
sound. The variation is simply a matter 
of convenience for pronunciation, since the 
meaning of the two words is exactly the 
same. 

[35] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



A or an signifies one of a group, but does 
this without any precise determination as to 
which one of the group is thus indicated. 
For example, "Give me a hand/' 

The definite article, the^ in accordance with 
its name, refers to some one person or thing, 
which is thus specifically singled out for at- 
tention. For example: the hearty the truthy 
the old daysy etc. The article, whether in- 
definite or definite, invariably precedes the 
noun. If one or more adjectives precede a 
noun, the article precedes these. For ex- 
ample, a dayy the daySy the good old days. 



[36] 



CHAPTER IV 

THE VERB 

A VERB Is that part of speech which as- 
serts something concerning Its subject. The 
subject may be one or more nouns, or pro- 
nouns, or any word used as a noun. 

Thus in the statement: "The boy eats/' 
the word eats Is a verb, by means of which a 
fact is asserted concerning the boy, the subject. 

There are two classes of verbs, transitive 
and intransitive. The transitive verb has an 
object of the action expressed by the verb, 
while the intransitive verb has no object. 
Thus, in the statement: ''The boy eats 
candy,'* the verb eats is transitive, since it 
has an object, the word candy. But In the 
statement, ''The boy sleeps,'' the verb sleeps 
is intransitive, because It has no object. 

Verbs are also classified as either principal 
or auxiliary. A principal verb Is complete in 
itself. In the sentences quoted above, both 
eats and sleeps are principal verbs. An aux- 
iliary verb, on the contrary, is not complete 

[37] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



in itself. Its purpose is to define in some 
particular manner a principal verb with 
which it is associated. In the assertion, "I 
shall hope/' shall is an auxiliary verb. 

Verbs are divided also into two classes, 
regular and irregular, according to the man- 
ner in which they change their form. The 
regular verbs are changed by the addition of 
ed for the past tense and the past participle; 
while the irregular verbs are changed in 
various other ways. An example of a regular 
verb is turn^ of which the form for the past 
tense and the past participle is turned. An ex- 
ample of an irregular verb is do^ for which the 
past tense is did^ and the past participle is done. 

It should be noted that only a very small 
proportion of the verbs in our language are 
irregular. 

A verb is described as being in the active 
voice when the subject is presented in a state 
of action. For example, in such an assertion 
as, ''The fire heats the room,'' the subject, 
fire^ is represented in action by the verb 
heatSy and the verb is therefore described as 
being in the active voice. When the subject 
is presented as being acted upon, the verb is 
declared to be in the passive voice. Thus, 
C38] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



the idea in the assertion above might be ex- 
pressed, "The room is heated by the fire/^ In 
this case, the verb is in the passive voice, since 
the subject, room, instead of acting is acted upon. 

The passive voice is formed always by 
using various forms of the verb be^ with the 
past participle of the particular verb required. 

It should be noted that in inverting the form 
of expression of any idea from the active 
voice to the passive, the object of the verb 
in the active voice becomes the subject of the 
verb in the passive voice. Thus, in the 
sentence above, the word room is the object 
of the active verb heats ^ but it is the subject 
of the passive verb is heated. The full ex- 
pression of the thought requires in connec- 
tion with the passive voice the use of the word 
fire, which was the subject of the active verb, 
along with a preposition indicating its agency, 
so that we have: ''The room is heated by 
the fire." 

A verb has five different moods — that 
is to say, five different manners of expression. 
These are the indicative, subjunctive, po- 
tential, imperative and infinitive. 

The indicative mood implies reality as to 
the idea expressed by the verb. "He eats;'' 

[39] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



"The house is haunted;'' "The boy fell 
down;'' "He will come," are various illus- 
trations of the indicative mood. 

The subjunctive mood does not imply 
reality, but merely a supposition. "If you 
fall, you will hurt yourself." Here, the verb 
fall is in the subjunctive mood. ;^ As a rule, 
the subjunctive mood is indicated by the 
use of an introductory word, such as ify though^ 
unless^ etc. 

The potential mood is employed for the 
expression of desire, need or possibility in 
connection with the action of the verb. This 
mood requires the use of auxiliaries with the 
verb. These are may^ can^ must, might, could, 
would, or should. 

It should be noted also that the words ij, 
though, etc., used to introduce the subjunc- 
tive, may be used also to introduce the po- 
tential. "He would be content, if she could 
love him." 

The imperative mood is employed when the 
verb expresses an order or a supplication. 
Such sentences as, "Bless us, OLord," or "Be 
still," offer examples of the imperative. 

The infinitive mood is the use of the verb 
in its broadest sense, without any limitation. 
[40] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



The word to preceding the verb is the sign of 
the infinitive. ''To be or not to be/' An 
infinitive may be employed as the subject 
of another verb, or as the object of another 
verb, or of a preposition, etc. 

The action of a verb in its relation to time 
is indicated by the tense. The tenses are 
past, present and future. But, since any 
action may be either completed or not com- 
pleted, whatever its time, each tense has 
two divisions, one of which represents the 
action, as completed. This form is named 
the perfect. So we have actually six dif- 
ferent tense forms, as follows: 

Present Past Future 

Present perfect Past perfect Future perfect 

In the present tense the action is at the 
present time: ''He laughs.'' 

In the present perfect, the action is com- 
pleted in the present: "I have arrived.'* 

In the past tense the action is merely past: 
"The day was hot.'' 

In the past perfect, the action is not simply 
past, but is specifically completed at a certain 
time. Had is used as an auxiliary before the 
verb: "He had decided before she spoke." 

[41] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



In the future tense the action is at a future 
time: ^'He will die/' Shall and will are the 
auxiliaries employed with verbs to form the 
future tense. 

In the future-perfect tense, the action is 
definitely completed at a future time: '^He 
will have fled before they learn of his coming/' 
Have is added after shall or will in forming 
the future perfect. Thus, in the above sen- 
tence, will have fled is the future-perfect tense 
of the verb. 

It should be noted that only in the in- 
dicative mood are there distinctive forms for 
all these tenses. 

The subjunctive of the verb to be has forms 
for three tenses, the present, present perfect 
and past. Other verbs have only two sub- 
junctive tenses, the present and present per- 
fect. For other tenses in the subjunctive, 
the indicative forms are used. 

The potential mood has four tenses, the 
present, present perfect, past and past perfect. 

The imperative is limited to a single tense, 
the present. 

The infinitive has two tenses, the present and 
perfect. For example: to turn^ to have turned. 

A verb has person, which may be either 
C42] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



first, second or third, according to the person 
of its subject. So, too, it may be either sin- 
gular or plural in number, in agreement with 
its subject. The sentence, ^^I love,'' has the 
verb first person, singular number. In ''They 
love,'' the verb is third person, plural number. 

Fortunately for the student, there are 
almost no changes in the form of the verb 
to indicate person and number. The verb 
to he is the only one having a distinct form for 
the first person, singular, am. There are also 
other special forms for this verb, and a few 
other verbs show variations. 

But in almost all verbs the only changes 
are in terminations for the second and third 
persons singular, usually st and s respectively. 
Thus, in the conjugation of the verb to love 
we have: 



I love 


we love 


thou lovest 


you love 


he loves 


they love 



This subject will be treated in detail later on. 

The student should note that the verb 
must always agree with its subject in person 
and number. 

[43 3 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



THE PARTICIPLE 

A participle is a form of the verb, which has 
the properties of a verb and also those of an 
adjective or noun. The participle is either 
present or past. The form for the present 
has the termination ing, and denotes action 
at the present time. Thus, giving is the 
present participle of the verb to give. 

The past participle refers to action begun 
or completed in the past. Its form varies 
somewhat, but usually it has the ending ed. 
Thus, the past participle of to give is givetiy 
but the ending ed appears in the great ma- 
jority of the past participles, such as loved, 
learnedy kissed, played, etc. 

By the use of auxiliaries the two forms of 
the participles are multiplied to make six, 
three for each of the two voices. These 
auxiliaries are having, being, and having been. 
Thus for the active voice we have three 
participles in this manner: 

Present Past Perfect 

giving given having given 

And for the passive three again: 

Present Past Perfect 

being given given having been given 
[44] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



ACTIVE VOICE 

The complete statement of all the various 
forms of a verb is called its conjugation. 
This includes voice, mood, tense, person and 
number. 

For the active voice, the conjugation is 
as follows for a regular verb: 





INFINITIVE 






to learn 






Indicative Mood 






Present Tense 






Singular 


Plural 


First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 


I learn 
thou learnest 
he learns 

Past Tense 


we learn 
you learn 
they learn 




Singular 


Plural 


First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 


I learned 
thou learnedst 
he learned 


we learned 
you learned 
they learned 



[45] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 



Subjunctive Mood 
Present Tense 

Singular 
if I learn 
if thou learn 
if he learn 



Plural 
if we learn 
if you learn 
if they learn 



Imperative Mood 
Present Tense 
Singular 
Second person: learn thou 



Plural 
learn you 



Participles 

Present Past 

learning learned 

The few forms given above comprise all the 
changes in the regular verb. They empha- 
size the splendid simplicity of the English 
verb. In other languages, the conjugation 
of the verb lays on the student a task of 
enormous difficulty. 

AUXILIARY VERBS 

The verb to have must be given first place, 
because it is a component in the various forms 
of other auxiliaries. 
[46] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 





Indicative Mood 


[ 




Present Tense 






Singular 


Plural 


First person: 


I have 


we have 


Second " 


thou hast 


you have 


Third " 


he has 
Past Tense 


they have 




Singular 


Plural 


First person: 


I had 


we had 


Second " 


thou hadst 


you had 


Third '' 


he had 


they had 




Subjunctive Mood 




Present Tense 






Singular 


Plural 


First person: 


if I have 


if we have 


Second '' 


if thou have 


if you have 


Third " 


if he have 
Past Tense 


if they have 




Singular 


Plural 


First person: 


if I had 


if we had 


Second ^' 


if thou had 


if you had 


Third '' 


if he had 


if they had 
[47] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Have is used as an auxiliary in connection 
with the past participle of a verb to form the 
present perfect or the past perfect of such 
verb. For example: 

Indicative Mood 
Present-perfect Tense 
Singular 
First person: I have learned 
Second '' thou hast learned 

Third '' he has learned 



First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 



Plural 
we have learned 
you have learned 
they have learned 



Past-perfect Tense 
Singular 
First person: I had learned 
Second '' thou hadst learned 

Third '^ he had learned 



First person: 
Second '' 
Third '' 
C48] 



Plural 
we had learned 
you had learned 
they had learned 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



The like use of have gives the form for the 
perfect infinitive, for example, to have learnedy 
and for the perfect participle, having learned. 

The two auxiliaries of the future tense are 
shall and will. These are used in connection 
with a verb to indicate future action. 

Should and would are used as auxiliaries in 
the potential mood. 

The word shall, in its origin, contains the 
idea of obligation, while the word will ex- 
presses merely purpose. In usage, however, 
the first significance has been greatly modified 
in connection with both words, so that now 
there is some degree of confusion concerning 
them. For the formation of the future, con- 
sidered merely as a matter of time, shall is 
employed as the auxiliary for the first person, 
both singular and plural, while will {wilt) is 
used for the second and third persons in both 
numbers. But when it is desired to em- 
phasize purpose in the future action, the 
usage is exactly reversed. Will is then the 
auxiliary for the first person; while shall 
{shah) is used for the second and third per- 
sons in both numbers. 

Thus, we have the forms for the simple 
future action as follows : 

[49] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



X 


Future Tense 


First person: 
Second '' 
Third '' 


Singular 
I shall learn 
thou wilt learn 
he will learn 




Plural 


First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 


we shall learn 
you will learn 
they will learn 


Where the future denotes resolve, the forms 
are: 




Future Tense 


First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 


Singular 
I will learn 
thou shalt learn 
he shall learn 




Plural 


First person: 
Second ^' 
Third " 


we will learn 
you shall learn 
they shall learn 



The same distinctions are observed as to 
the use of shall and will when joined with 
[so] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



have and the past participle of a verb for the 
formation of the future perfect. 
Thu«, we have: 

Future-perfect Tense 
Singular 
First person: I shall have learned 
Second '" thou wilt have learned 

Third '^ he will have learned 



First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 



Plural 
we shall have learned 
you will have learned 
they will have learned 



And for the purposeful statement : 

Future-perfect Tense 
Singular 
First person: I will have learned 
Second '' thou shalt have learned 

Third '" he shall have learned 



First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 



Plural 
we will have learned 
you shall have learned 
they shall have earned 
[si] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



It is to be observed that each future and 
future-perfect tense is employed in the in- 
dicative mood alone. 

: The distinctive auxiliaries for the potential 
mood are may^ can and must^ but should and 
would are also employed for this mood. 

The word may carries with it always a 
suggestion of possibility, and it is of frequent 
use in supplications. The form of its past 
tense is might. It is employed as follows : 



First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 



First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 



Indicative Mood 
Present Tense 

Singular 
I may 
thou mayst 
he may 

Past Tense 
Singular 
I might 
thou mightst 
he might 



Plural 
we may 
you may 
they may 



Plural 
we might 
you might 
they might 



Can^ also, has only two forms: can for the 
present, and could for the past. 

CS2] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 



First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 



Indicative Mood 

Present Tense 

Singular Plural 

I can we can 

thou canst you can 

he can they can 



Past Tense 
Singular 
I could 
thou couldst 
he could 



Plural 
we could 
you could 
they could 



Must is remarkable among the auxiliaries 
from the fact that it has not a single change 
of form. Even the second person singular 
shows no change in the ending. This, of 
course, is due to the ending in st, which sup- 
plies the place of the st that would otherwise 
be added. 

Indicative Mood 





Present Tense 






Singular 


Plural 


First person: 


I must 


we must 


Second '' 


thou must 


you must 


Third " 


he must 


they must 

C53] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



The auxiUary do is employed in the indica- 
tive present and past, in the subjunctive 
present, and in the imperative. 





Indicative Mood 






Present Tense 




First person: 
Second '' 
Third '' 


Singular 
I do 

thou dost 
he does 

Past Tense 


Plural 
we do 
you do 
they do 


First person: 
Second " 
Third " 


Singular 
I did 

thou didst 
he did 


Plural 
we did 
you did 
they did 




Subjunctive Mood 




Present Tense 




First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 


Singular 
if I do 
if thou do 
if he do 

Imperative Mood 
Present Tense 


Plural 
if we do 
if you do 
if they do 


Singular 
Second person: do thou 

[54] 


Plural 
do you 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



The chief uses of do as an auxiUary are to 
give additional force to an assertion, and to 
serve as a convenient method in the phrasing 
of interrogations. 

The most irregular of the auxiliary verbs is 
to be. I^uckily, however, we are so familiar 
with the various changes in this verb that the 
grammatical forms present no difficulty. 



First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 



Indicative Mood 
Present Tense 

Singular 
I am 
thou art 
he is 



Plural 
•we are 
you are 
they are 



Present-perfect Tense 

Singular Plural 

First person : I have been we have been 
Second '' thou hast been you have been 

Third '' he has been they have been 



First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 



Past Tense 
Singular 

I was 

thou wast 

he was 



Plural 
we were 
you were 
they were 
[55] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Past-perfect Tense 


First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 


Singular 
I had been 
thou hadst been 
he had been 




Plural 


First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 


we had been 
you had been 
they had been 




Future Tense 


First person: 
Second '' 
Third '' 


Singular Plural 
I shall be we shall be 
thou wilt be you will be 
he will be they will be 



Future-perfect Tense 
Singular 
First person: I shall have been 
Second ^^ thou wilt have been 

Third '' he will have been 



First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 
C56] 



Plural 
we shall have been 
you will have been 
they will have been 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 





Subjunctive Mood 




Present Tense 




Singular Plural 


First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 


if I be if we be 
if thou be if you be 
if he be if they be 


Present-perfect Tense 


First person: 
Second " 
Third " 


Singular 
if I have been 
if thou have been 
if he have been 




Plural 


First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 


if we have been 
if you have been 
if they have been 




Past Tense 




Singular Plural 


First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 


if I were if we were 
if thou wert if you were 
if he were if they were 




[57] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 





Past-perfect Tense 




Singular 


First person: 


if I had been 


Second '' 


if thou hadst been 


Third " 


if he had been 




Plural 


First person: 


if we had been 


Second '' 


if you had been 


Third " 


if they had been 




Potential Mood 




Present Tense 


• 


Singular Plural 


First person: 


I may be we may be 


Second '' 


thou mayst be you may be 


Third " 


he may be they may be 


Present-perfect Tense 




Singular 


First person: 


I may have been 


Second '' 


thou mayst have been 


Third " 


he may have been 




Plural 


First person : 


we may have been 


Second " 


you may have been 


Third " 


they may have been 


[58] 





GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 



First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 



Past Tense 

Singular 
I might be 
thou mightst be 
he might be 

Plural 
we might be 
you might be 
they might be 



Past-perfect Tense 
Singular 
First person: I might have been 
Second '' thou mightst have been 

Third '^ he might have been 

Plural 
First person: we might have been 
Second '' you might have been 

Third /' they might have been 

Imperative Mood 
Present Tense 

Singular Plural 

Second person: be thou be you 

[59] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Infinitive Mood 

Present Tense 
to be 

Perfect Tense 
to have been 

Participles 

Present Tense 
being 

Past Tense 
been 

Perfect Tense 
having been 

The verb to he^ apart from its employment 
as a principal verb, serves as an auxiliary in 
the formation of the passive voice. For 
this purpose, its various forms are associated 
with the past participle of another verb, and 
by such construction the subject of the verb 
is shown to be actually the object of the action 
expressed. The subject, instead of being 
[60] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



active, is now passive, and this fact explains 
and justifies the name of the voice. 

It should be noted also that to he is fre- 
quently used with the present participle of 
some other verb in order to denote continued 
action. For example, ^'I am walking"; "'He 
was studying''; ''They will be dancing.'' 

THE PASSIVE VOICE 

The passive voice is formed by the use of 
the auxiliary to be and the past participle of 
any verb. The student will note that in 
each mood and tense the participle remains 
the same, and the various changes in form 
are entirely through the auxiliary. 

Indicative Mood 
Present Tense 
Singular 
First person: I am trained 
Second " thou art trained 

Third " he is trained 

Plural 
First person: we are trained 
Second '* you are trained 

Third '* they are trained 



[6i] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Present-perfect Tense 
Singular 
First person: I have been trained 



Second '' 
Third " 


thou hast been trained 
he has been trained 




Plural 


First person: 
Second '' 
Third '' 


we have been trained 
you have been trained 
they have been trained 




Past Tense 


First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 


Singular 
I was trained 
thou wast trained 
he was trained 




Plural 


First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 


we were trained 
you were trained 
they were trained 




Past-perfect Tense 


First person: 
Second " 
Third " 

[62] 


Singular 
I had been trained 
thou hadst been trained 
he had been trained 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 





Plural 


First person: 


we had been trained 


Second " 


you had been trained 


Third " 


they had been trained 




Future Tense 




Singular 


First person: 


I shall be trained 


Second '' 


thou wilt be trained 


Third " 


he will be trained 




Plural 


First person: 


we shall be trained 


Second '' 


you will be trained 


Third " 


they will be trained 



Future-perfect Tense 
Singular 
First person : I shall have been trained 
Second '' thou wilt have been trained 

Third • '' he will have been trained 

Plural 
First person: we shall have been trained 
Second '' you will have been trained 

Third '" they will have been trained 

[63 ] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 





Subjunctive Mood 




Present Tense 


First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 


Singular 
if I be trained 
if thou be trained 
if he be trained 


First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 


^ Plural 
if we be trained 
if you be trained 
if they be trained 



Present-perfect Tense 
Singular 
First person : if I have been trained 
Second '^ if thou have been trained 

Third '" if he have been trained 

Plural 
if we have been trained 
if you have been trained 
if they have been trained 



First person: 
Second '^ 
Third " 



First person: 
Second '' 
Third " 

[64] 



Past Tense 
Singular 
if I were trained 
if thou wert trained 
if he were trained 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 





Plural 


First person: 


if we were trained 


Second " 


if you were trained 


Third " 


if they were trained 



Past-perfect Tense 

Singular 
First person : if I had been trained 
Second '' if thou hadst been trained 

Third '' if he had been trained 





Plural 


First person: 


if we had been trained 


Second '" 


if you had been trained 


Third " 


if they had been trained 




Potential Mood 




Present Tense 




Singular 


First person: 


I may be trained 


Second '' 


thou mayst be trained 


Third " 


he may be trained 




Plural 


First person: 


we may be trained 


Second '' 


you may be trained 


Third " 


they may be trained 




i^s:^ 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Present-perfect Tense 




Singular 


First person: 


I may have been trained 


Second " 


thou mayst have been trained 


Third " 


he may have been trained 




Plural 


First person: 


we may have been trained 


Second '' 


you may have been trained 


Third " 


they may have been trained 




Fast Tense 




Singular 


First person: 


I might be trained 


Second '' 


thou mightst be trained 


Third " 


he might be trained 




Plural 


First person: 


we might be trained 


Second '' 


you might be trained 


Third " 


they might be trained 




Past-perfect Tense 




Singular 


First person: 


I might have been trained 


Second " 


thou mightst have been 




trained 


Third '' 


he might have been trained 


[66] 





GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Plural 
First person : we might have been trained 
Second '' you might have been trained 

Third ^^ they might have been trained 

Imperative Mood 
Present Tense 
Singular 
Second person: be thou trained 

Plural 
Second person : be you trained 

Infinitive Mood 

Present Tense 
to be trained 

Perfect Tense 
to have been trained 

Participles 

Present Tense 
being trained 

Past Tense 
trained 

Perfect Tense 
having been trained 

C67] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



IRREGULAR VERBS / 

Besides those regular verbs in which the 
past tense and past participle are formed by 
adding the termination ed^ such as to train^ 
with its past tense and past participle trained, 
there are a certain number of verbs that show 
variations from this use. Luckily, the num- 
ber of them is very small, compared with the 
whole number of verbs in the language. The 
total is not sufficient to present any serious 
obstacle to the student. Such verbs are of 
Saxon origin, and have retained their an- 
cient forms. Some of them lack parts of 
their conjugation, while others, termed re- 
dundant verbs, have alternative forms. It is 
necessary that the student should familiarize 
himself thoroughly with the list of irregular 
verbs. He will find, however, that the task 
in not too difficult, since a considerable pro- 
portion of the list is already known to him 
as a matter of course from the usages of 
every-day speech. 

Irregular Verbs 
Present Past Past Participle 



arise 


arose 


arisen 


awake 


awoke 


awoke 


[68] 







GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 




awakened 


awakened 


bear 


bore 
bare 


borne 


bear (carry) 
beat 


bore 
beat 


borne 

beaten 

beat 


become 


became 


become 


befall 


befell 


befallen 


beget 
begin 

behold 


begot 
began 
begun 
beheld 


begotten 
begun 

beheld 


bend 


bent 


bent 




bended 


bended 


bereave 


bereft 


bereft 




bereaved 


bereaved 


beseech 
bet 


besought 
bet 


besought 
bet 




betted 


betted 


bid 


bid 


bid 




bade 


bidden 


bind 


bound 


bound 
bounden 


bite 


bit 


bitten 
bit 

C69] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


bleed 


bled 


bled 


blend 


blent 


blent 




blended 


blended 


bless 


blest 


blest 




blessed 


blessed 


blow 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke 


broke 




break 


broken 


breed 


bred 


bred 


bring 


brought 


brought 


build 


built 


built 




builded 


builded 


burn 


burnt 


burnt 




burned 


burned 


burst 


burst 


burst 


buy 


bought 


bought 


can 


could 




cast 


cast 


cast 


catch 


caught 


caught 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


cleave 


clave 
cleaved 


cleaved 


cleave (split) 


cleft 


cleft 




clove 


cloven 




clave 


cleaved 



[70] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


cling 
clothe 


clung 
clad 


clung 
clad 




clothed 


clothed 


come 


came 


come 


cost 


cost 


cost 


creep 
crow 


crept 
crew 
crowed 


crept 
crowed 


cut 


cut 


cut 


dare 


durst 
dared 


dared 


deal 


dealt 


dealt 


dig 
do 


dug 

digged 

did 


dug 

digged 

done 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


dream 


dreamt 


dreamt 




dreamed 


dreamed 


dress 


drest 


drest 




dressed 


dressed 


drink 


drank 


drunk 
drunken 


drive 


drove 


driven 


dwell 


dwelt 


dwelt 


\ 


dwelled 


dwelled 

C71] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


eat 


ate 
eat 


eaten 

> 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


feed 


fed 


fed 


feel 


felt 


felt 


fight 


fought 


fought 


find 


found 


found 


flee 


fled 


fled 


fling 


flung 


flung 


fly 


flew 


flown 


forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


forbid 


forbade 


forbidden 
forbid 


forget 


forgot 


forgotten 
forgot 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


get 


got 


got 
gotten 


gild 


gilt 


gilt 




gilded 


gilded 


gird 


girt 


girt 




girded 


girded 


give 


gave 


given 


go 


went 


gone 



C70 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


grind 


ground 


ground 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hang 


hung 


hung 




hanged 


hanged 


have 


had 


had 


heave 


hove 


hove 




heaved 


heaved 


hew 


hewed 


hewn 
hewed 


hide 


hid 


hidden 


hit 


hit 


hit 


hold 


held 


held 
holden 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


keep 


kept 


kept 


kneel 


knelt 


knelt 




kneeled 


kneeled 


knit 


knit 


knit 




knitted 


knitted 


know 


knew 


known 


lade 


laded 


laden 
laded 


lay 


laid 


laid 


lead 


led 


led 


lean 


leant 


leant 

1:73] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 




leaned 


leaned 


leap 
learn 


leapt 

leaped 

learnt 


leapt 

leaped 

learnt 




learned 


learned 


leave 


left 


left 


lend 


lent 


lent 


let 


let 


let 


lie 
light 

lose 


lay 
lit 

lighted 
lost 


lain 
lit 

lighted 
lost 


make 


made 


made 


may 


might 




mean 


meant 


meant 


meet 


met 


met 


mow 


mowed 


mown 
mowed 


must 






ought 






pass 

pay 
plead 


past 

passed 

paid 

plead 

pleaded 


past 

passed 

paid 

plead 

pleaded 



C74] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


put 


put 


put 


quit 
read 


quit 
quitted 
quoth 
read 


quit 
quitted 

read 


rend 


rent 


rent 




rended 


rended 


rid 


rid 


rid 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


ring 


rang 
rung 


rung 


rise 


rose 


risen 


rive 


rived 


riven 
rived 


run 


ran 


run 


saw 


sawed 


sawn 
sawed 


say- 


said 


said 


see 


saw 


seen 


seek 
sell 


sought 
sold 


sought 
sold 


send 


sent 


sent 


set 


set 


set 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


shall 


should 





C7S] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


shape 


shaped 


shapen 
shaped 


shave 


shaved 


shaven 
shaved 


shear 


shore 


shorn 




sheared 


sheared 


shed 


shed 


shed 


shine 


shone 


shone 




shined 


shined 


shoe 


shod 


shod 


shoot 


shot 


shot 


show 


showed 


shown 
showed 


shred 


shred 


shred 




shredded 


shredded 


shrink 


shrank 


shrunk 




shrunk 


shrunken 


shut 


shut 


shut 


sing 


sang 
sung 


sung 


sink 


sank 
sunk 


sunk 


sit 


sat 


sat 


slay 


slew 


slain 


slide 


slid 


slid 


[763 







GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 
slidden 


sling 


slung 


slung 


slink 


slunk 


slunk 


slit 


slit 


slit 




slitted 


slitted 


smell 


smelt 


smelt 




smelled 


smelled 


smite 


smote 


smitten 
smit 


sow 


sowed 


sown 
sowed 


speak 


spoke 


spoken 


speed 


sped 


sped 


spell 


spelt 


spelt 




spelled 


spelled 


spend 


spent 


spent 


spill 


spilt 


spilt 




spilled 


spilled 


spin 


spun 
span 


spun 


spit 


spat 


spit 


split 


split 


split 


spoil 


spoilt 


spoilt 




spoiled 


spoiled 


spread 


spread 


spread 



[77] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


spring 


sprang 


sprang 


stand 


sprung 
stood 


stood 


stave 


stove 


stove 




staved 


stave 


stay 
steal 


staid 

stayed 

stole 


staid 

stayed 

stolen 


stick 


stuck 


stuck 


sting 
stink 


stung 
stunk 
stank 


stung 
stunk 


strew 


strewed 


strewn 
strewed 


stride 


strode 


stridden 


strike 


struck 


struck 
stricken 


string 


strung 


strung 


strive 


strove 


striven 


swear 


swore 
sware 


sworn 


sweat 


sweat 


sweat 




sweated 


sweated 


sweep 
swell 


swept 
swelled 


swept 
swollen 


[78] 







GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 
swelled 


swim 


swam 
swum 


swum 


swing 
take 


swung 
took 


swung 
taken 


teach 


taught 


taught 


tear 


tore 


torn 


tell 


told 


told 


think 
thrive 


thought 
throve 


thought 
thriven 




thrived 


thrived 


throw 


threw 


thrown 


thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


tread 


trod 


trodden 
trod 


wake 


woke 


woke 




waked 


waked 


wear 


wore 


worn 


weave 


wove 


woven 




weaved 


weaved 


wed 


wed 


wed 


weep 


wept 


wept 


wet 


wet 


wet 




wetted 


wetted 


whet 


whet 


whet 

[79] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Present 

will 

win 

wind 

wit 

wot 

work 

wring 
write 



Past 


Past Participle 


whetted 
would 


whetted 


won 
wound 


won 
wound 


wist 




wrought 
worked 


wrought 
worked 


wrung 
wrote 


wrung 
written 



THE PARTICIPLE 

Much diversity of opinion exists among 
grammarians concerning the right treatment 
of the participle in its various aspects. As a 
matter of fact, however, there should be no 
difficulty in this connection. The participle 
is one of the parts of a verb. As such, it may 
have an object, or it may be modified by an 
adverb. But a participle, whether present or 
past, may take on the nature of an adjec- 
tive, or it may serve as a noun. Thus, flying, 
is the present participle of the verb to fly. In 
a phrase such as the flying squadron, this par- 
ticiple takes on the nature of an adjective 
[80] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



qualifying the noun squadron. Were the 
phrase to read, the squadron flying slowly y 
the participle would still retain its adjectival 
character, but at the same time, its essen- 
tially verbal nature would permit its modi- 
fication by the adverb slowly. In such a 
sentence as, ^'The flying continued for 
hours,'' the participle serves as a noun. Here, 
it is the subject of a verb. It might be used 
also as the object of a verb or of a preposition. 
To understand the correct usage of the par- 
ticiple, it is sufficient to remember its three- 
fold aspect, as verb, adjective and noun. Of 
these three phases, the verbal is the original 
and permanent, while the others appear only 
in certain relations. 



[8i] 



CHAPTER V 

THE ADVERB 

An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, 
adjective, or another adverb. For example, 
in the sentence, "The boy cried loudly,'' the 
word loudly is an adverb, modifying the verb 
cried. If the sentence be made to read, *'The 
boy cried very loudly ^'^ the word very is also an 
adverb, and modifies the adverb loudly. 

There are six classes of adverbs: of place, 
time, manner, cause, number and degree. 

An adverb of place has to do with the matter 
of location. Examples of such adverbs are: 
ahovey after^ anywhere^ hack^ hehindy helozVy 
dowUy everywhere^ firsty forthy forzvardy hencey 
herey nowhere y somewhere y thence y there y upy 
whencey wherey and the like. 

Adverbs of time are sufficiently defined 
when thus designated. Examples of such 
adverbs are : againy ago, always y frequently y 
immediately y never y noWy ofteny sometimeSy soony 
wheUy untily and the like. 

[82] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Adverbs of manner serve to define action. 
Examples of such adverbs are: badly ^ certainly ^ 
easily^ how^ illy nOy noty sOy stilly surelyy thuSy 
welly yes. 

Adverbs of cause have to do with the reason 
for an action. Examples of such adverbs are: 
consequentlyy hencey thereforey whereforey whyy 
and the like. 

Adverbs of number are derived from the 
ordinals by use of the suffix ly. The suffix is 
not required in the case of the word firsty since 
this itself is an adverb. The suffix appears, 
however, with all the other ordinals, such as 
secondly y thirdly y fourthly y fifthly y and so on. 

Adverbs of degree define the intensity of 
an action. Examples of such adverbs are: 
almosty altogethery chiefly y enoughy extremelyy 
muchy morey mosty nearly y onlyy partly y scarcely y 
somewhaty toOy and the like. 

Adverbs are grouped also according to 
their use in interrogation. These interroga- 
tive adverbs are employed in asking questions. 
HoWy wheny whencey ^;herey whether y and why 
2iit examples of this use. 

When an adverb joins a principal clause to 
a dependent clause, it is called a relative or 
conjunctive adverb. In this class are in- 
C83] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



eluded such words as: how^ nozvy since y sOy 
wheriy whence^ wherCy why and the like. 

Adverbs, to a somewhat limited extent, 
may be compared like adjectives. More and 
mosty less and leasty are ordinarily used in such 
comparison. Only a small number of ad- 
verbs show their degree by adding er or est. 
The most familiar among these that are thus 
compared by a suffix are: deepy early y fasty 
hardy longy ofteUy quick and soon. 

A very few adverbs have irregular forms 
of comparison. Worse is the comparative of 
either badly or illy while worst is the super- 
lative. Far has two forms of the compara- 
tive, /ar/^^r and further y and the corresponding 
two for the superlative, fartherest and fur- 
therest. Late has a regular comparative and 
superlative, but it also has an alternate form 
for the superlative, last. Little has its com- 
parative lesSy and its superlative least. Much 
has more for the comparative, most for the 
superlative. Near is compared regularly with 
the forms nearer and nearesty but it has also 
a variant in the superlative, next. The ad- 
verb well has better and best for its compara- 
tive and superlative. 

It should be noted that adverbs are often 
[84] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



used quite independently. The well so often 
heard at the beginning of a sentence is an 
adverb, which has no relation whatsoever 
with the words following. Thus used, it 
actually has the quality of an interjection. 
Tes and no are similarly independent ad- 
verbs. 



C8s3 



CHAPTER VI 

THE PREPOSITION 

A PREPOSITION is a word that governs an- 
other word or phrase, called its object, by 
determining a relation with some antecedent 
word or phrase. Thus, in the sentence, "The 
house stood by the river,'' the word by is a 
preposition, which has for its object the word 
river y and it determines the relationship be- 
tween the river and the house. Here, the word 
house is the antecedent of the preposition. 

Both the antecedent and the object of the 
preposition may be a noun, a pronoun, an 
adjective, a verb, an adverb, or a phrase. If 
the word governed by the preposition is a 
noun or a pronoun, it is usually described 
as being in the objective case. 
^ Often two or more prepositions may be 
used in one phrase, in such intimate associa- 
tion that the whole phrase may be regarded 
as a compound preposition. Examples of 
such usage are afforded by the phrases, he- 
cause of^ in spite of^ on account of^ and the like. 
E861 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Participles often serve as convenient prep- 
ositions with an object following. Such par- 
ticiples are employed rather independently, 
unconnected with a subject. The word ex- 
cepting affords a familiar illustration of this 



use. 



w 



Prepositions are sometimes joined together 
with a single object following. For example^ 
"He looked out over the sea.'' 

Often, also, the preposition assumes an 
adverbial relation to a verb, without an ob- 
ject of its own. ""He stood upy 

The passive voice commonly retains, in 
connection with the verb, the preposition 
which in the active voice would govern the 
noun. Thus, where in the active voice we 
would have such a sentence as, "The fellow 
scowled at him,'' if the thought were expressed 
in the passive voice, the sentence would run, 
"He was scowled at by the fellow." The at^ 
which in the first sentence governed the pro- 
noun him^ is retained in the s^ond sentence, 
though it no longer has an object. 



C87] 



CHAPTER VII 

THE CONJUNCTION 

A CONJUNCTION is a word connecting parts 
of a sentence. 

The following list contains the conjunctions 
most commonly employed : • 

also only 

although or 

and save 



as 


since 


because 


so 


both 


still 


but 


than 


either 


that 


except 
for 


then 
therefore 


however 
if 


through 
unless 


lest 


what 


neither 


when 


nevertheless 


whereas 


nor 


whereat 



[88] 



notwithstanding whereby 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



wherefore whether 

wherein while 

whereof without 

whereupon yet 

wherever 
Conjunctions are called coordinate when 
they connect equal parts of a sentence. They 
are called subordinate when they join an in- 
ferior part of a sentence to a superior part. 



C89] 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE INTERJECTION 

An interjection is a word used independ- 
ently — usually either to express emotion or 
to arrest attention. 

Ah and hello are familiar interjections. 
Such an exclamatory word may stand alone, 
and of itself form a complete sentence; or 
it may be interjected into a sentence, where it 
has no grammatical relation to the other 
parts. 



[90] 



CHAPTER IX 

THE SENTENCE 

A SENTENCE is a Statement that is com- 
plete in itself. 

When a sentence is written, its jfirst word 
always begins with a capital letter, and its 
end is indicated by a full stop — a period, an 
exclamation mark, or a question mark. 

A sentence may be very long and complex, 
or very short and simple. An example of 
the very simplest sort is afforded by the sen- 
tences containing only a single word. The 
exclamation ^'Ha!'' forms such a sentence, 
or the imperative verb, ^'GoV 

Usually the sentence contains a noun or 
pronoun and a verb. The following are ex- 
amples of simple sentences: "The boy ran '^; 
"He eats." 

^ The noun or pronoun, or a phrase in place 
of either, is termed the subject, while the verb 
is termed the predicate. Either the subject 
or the predicate may have modifiers. Thus, 
in the sentence, "The fat man eats heartily,'' 

[91] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



the noun man is qualified by the adjective, 
jat^ and the verb eats is modified by the ad- 
verb heartily. 

The sentence may be made up of coordi- 
nate parts, connected by a conjunction. Such 
coordinate parts are called clauses, and each 
of them must contain a subject and predi- 
cate. Thus, in the sentence, ^^Man pro- 
poses, but God disposes,^^ there are two 
clauses, ^^Man proposes,^' and ^^God dis- 
poses," which are connected by the conjunc- 
tion but. Such clauses are also described as 
independent, because each is really a com- 
plete sentence in itself. 

A dependent clause is one that derives its 
significance from a principal clause with 
which it is associated in the sentence. In 
the sentence, ^'We eat when we are hungry.'' 
*Vhen we are hungry'' is a dependent clause. 
Such a dependent clause must always con- 
tain a subject and predicate of its own. 

Any group of words in the sentence that 
does not contain a subject and predicate, is 
called a phrase. Such phrases may be re- 
lated to either the subject or the predicate 
of a sentence. For example, in the sentence, 
"We honor the man of such splendid virtues," 
[92] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



the group of words "of such splendid virtues/* 
is a phrase, which has the force of an adjective 
qualifying the noun man. Similarly, in the 
sentence, "The troops fought with the utmost 
valor,'' the group of words'^ "with the utmost 
valor,'' is a phrase that serves as an adverbial 
modifier of the verb fought. 



[93 ] 



CHAPTER X 

PARSING 

In parsing a word, we examine it and de- 
scribe its properties and its relationship to 
the sentence in which it is used. If we un- 
derstand the characteristics of the various 
parts of speech as they have already been 
defined, the task is not at all difficult. The 
principal thing to remember is that each sen- 
tence ordinarily contains a subject and a 
predicate. 

In the sentence, "The boy runs,'' the sub- 
ject is boy, the predicate is runs. The sub- 
ject hoy is a noun, masculine gender, third 
person, singular number, nominative case. 
We know that it is in the nominative case 
because it is the subject of the verb runs. 
The noun is qualified by the definite article 
the. 

The predicate runs is an intransitive verb 
in the indicative mood, present tense, third 
person, and singular number. It agrees in 
person and number with its subject boy. 

[94] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



If the sentence were expanded to read, 
^'The bad boy runs fast/' the parsing would 
remain exactly the same for the subject and 
the predicate, but there would be added the 
explanation that had is an adjective qualify- 
ing the noun boy^ and that fast is an adverb 
modifying the verb runs. - 

In a complex sentence, there is a principal 
clause with a subject and predicate, and also 
a subordinate clause, which is, in fact, a de- 
pendent sentence with its own subject and 
predicate. Grammarians use special terms 
to distinguish the subject and predicate of 
the principal clause in a sentence, such as 
the essential or the grammatical or the logical, 
and then employ other designations for the 
subject and predicate of a subordinate clause. 
Such multiplying of terms is, however, both 
unnecessary and confusing. It is enough to 
call the subject and the predicate of the prin- 
cipal clause the subject and the predicate re- 
spectively of the sentence, and to distinguish 
the subject and predicate of a dependent 
sentence by calling them respectively the 
subject and the predicate of the subordinate 
clause. 

The student should note that the subject 

C9S] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



of a sentence or of a subordinate clause may 
be either one noun or more than one, or it 
may be a single pronoun, or more than one 
pronoun, or it may be a combination of nouns 
and pronouns, or a combination of any words 
used as nouns, such as the infinitive form of 
the verb, or a participle, or an adjective. 
Thus, in the sentence ^^Men, women and 
children went hungry,^' men^ women and 
children is the subject of the verb went. 
This association of three nouns as the one 
subject of the verb is typical of all cases 
where more than one word is made the sub- 
ject of a sentence. For example, as to pro- 
nouns, in the sentence, ^^You and I will go," 
you and / together make the subject of the 
verb will gOy just as the pronoun we alone 
would make the subject. Thus, the subject 
of the sentence is the pronouns you and /. 
Such coordinate nouns, or pronouns, or other 
words joined in making the subject of a sen- 
tence, are often called the compound subject. 

The same principle governs the subject of 
a subordinate clause, which may be one word, 
or any number of coordinated words. 

Just as the subject of the sentence may be 
compound, so may the predicate be com- 
C96] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



pound. In the sentence, **Man eats, sleeps, 
works and plays," the predicate is made up 
of the four verbs, eats, sleeps , works and plays. 

Grammarians often insist that the verb 
alone forms the predicate in any sentence and 
name a word or phrase associated with the 
verb the complementary predicate. It is 
simpler, however, to designate the whole as 
the predicate, and then to specify as to the 
verbal predicate and the remaining part, 
whatever its character, as, for example, the 
adjectival. 

The additional part of the predicate asso- 
ciated with the verb may be of various sorts, 
according to the nature of the words em- 
ployed. A noun in the nominative case may 
thus be used, or an adjective, or the object of 
a transitive verb, or a phrase. '"He is a man," 
illustrates the use of a nominative noun in the 
predicate. "The man is good," has an ad- 
jectival predicate, since the word good is an 
adjective following the verb is, making the 
whole predicate is good. "The boy threw 
stones," shows the object of a transitive verb 
completing the predicate. Here, the mean- 
ing of the verbal predicate is filled out by 
using the object of the verb, stones. 

[97] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Grammarians have termed the various forms 
of the verb to he^ when used as a predicate 
verb, the copula, since it joins the subject and 
an adjectival or other predicate part following 
it. The term is unnecessary and it is suffi- 
cient to describe the forms of to he as merely 
verbal predicates. 



C98] 



part II 
STUDY OF DETAILS 



CHAPTER I 

MASCULINE AND FEMININE 
FORMS 

While it is true that the gender of English 
nouns depends usually on the meaning of the 
word, and not on the form, there are a few 
words derived from foreign languages which 
retain the distinctive endings for the gender. 
The following list gives the two forms for the 
most familiar among such nouns. 



Masculine 


Feminine 


abbot 


abbess 


actor 

administrator 

adventurer 

author 

baron 

benefactor 


actress 

administratrix 

adventuress 

authoress 

baroness 

benefactress 


count 
duke 


countess 
duchess 


emperor 
enchanter 


empress 
enchantress 


executor 


executrix 


governor 


governess 

[lOl] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Masculine 


Feminine 


hero 


heroine 


host 


hostess 


hunter 


huntress 


Jew 


Jewess 


lion 


lioness 


marquis 


marchioness 


master 


mistress 


murderer 


murderess 


poet 


poetess 


prophet 


prophetess 


protector 


protectress 


testator 


testatrix 


tiger 


tigress 


traitor 


traitress 



While the words in the above list have the 
distinctive forms for gender there indicated, 
the tendency of the present day is toward 
doing away with the different endings even 
for this small number of words, and employ- 
ing the masculine form whether the person 
referred to be a man or a woman. For ex- 
ample, many writers and speakers of to-day 
in their references to a woman prefer the 
terms poet and author, rather than poetess and 
authoress. 

C I02 ] 



CHAPTER II 

DISTINCTIVE FEATURES 

Antecedent Lacking 

The pronoun it is very commonly employed 
as the subject of a verb without any ante- 
cedent. It thus actually serves as a sort 
of indefinite noun. This use if it is familiar 
to every one as a convenience in references to 
the weather. In such sentences as: "It 
rains/' ''It snows/' and the like, the pronoun 
has no real antecedent. 

It should be noted also that the pronoun 
what never has an antecedent. In such a 
sentence as, "See what you have done,'' the 
relative pronoun what is in effect a conven- 
iently brief substitute for that which. Thus 
in a sense, what contains within itself its own 
antecedent; for, if the sentence were made 
to read, "See that which you have done," the 
pronoun which would have for its antecedent 
the pronoun that, 

C 103] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



The Possessive 

The possessive pronouns mine and thine 
were formerly used instead of my and thy be- 
fore any word beginning with a vowel or with 
a silent h. The use of the forms mine and 
thine is now commonly limited to a poetical 
style. The old use is illustrated throughout 
the Bible. 

In the Bible, we find also another usage that 
has become obsolete. This is the employment 
of ye as the nominative plural of the pronoun 
for the second person. Tou was reserved as 
the form only for the objective case. The 
modern practise is to employ you equally for 
both cases. Te is no longer written except 
occasionally in poetry. 

Alternate forms of the possessive pronouns 
may be used without a noun. These are mine^ 
thiney our, herSy and theirs. The regular pos- 
sessive forms his and its are similarly used. 
Such a pronoun is treated exactly as if it were 
a noun. For example: "The money is mine; 
it will never be yours.'' "Theirs was not a 
happy lot; hers was far better.'' 

A double possessive is common in our 
language. Thus, we say, "He is a friend of 
[104] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



ours/' or "He is a friend of Susan's/' or the 
like. Such a peculiarity in construction is 
called an idiom. It is a habit of our speech 
and, like many another, must be accepted as a 
fact that requires neither explanation nor 
criticism. 

Another peculiarity of the idiomatic sort is 
associated with the word else. When this 
adjective is employed in connection with 
certain pronouns, such as any oney every oney 
no oney some oney and the like, the possessive 
case is indicated by writing the apostrophe 
and ^ as a suffix to elsey instead of adding these 
signs of possession to the pronoun itself. 
Thus, we say some one else^Sy or any one else^Sy 
instead of some one^s elsey or any one^s else. 
Some grammarians have insisted that the 
latter form must be used. Such insistence 
has been wholly in vain. Custom makes 
grammar; grammar never makes custom. 

Each and Other 

The student should impress upon himself 
that the pronouns each and othery when used 
reciprocally, must be applied only in reference 
to two individuals, never when more than 
two are concerned. When we read such a 

[los] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



sentence as the following, ''They loved each 
other/' we have a right to understand that 
the lovers were two, no more. One and an- 
other are to be employed in every case where 
the individuals referred to by the pronouns 
exceed two in number. "They loved one 
another,'' would be the correct form when 
the persons spoken of numbered more than 
two, whether three or a thousand. The 
student should be at pains to acquire the 
proper usage in this respect, and he must 
guard against being led astray by the errors 
he may see or hear, which are very common. 

Adjectives not Comparable 

Certain adjectives, as well as the associated 
adverbs, are, from their very nature, incapable 
of comparison. This fact is illustrated by 
many words having a geometrical significance, 
such as perpendicular^ circular^ square^ spher- 
ical, and the like. It is proper to speak of a 
square, but anything is square, or it is not 
square. It cannot be squarer, or less square, 
by reason of the meaning of the word. It is, 
however, proper to describe one object as 
more nearly square than another, or less nearly 
square. A considerable number of other ad- 
Cio6] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



jectives also are likewise denied comparison 
by their character. Examples of this class 
are afforded by such words as: full^ complete ^ 
perfect^ and the like. Thus, if a thing be 
perfect^ it can be neither more nor less than 
perfect. 

Grammarians insist that this rule must be 
observed with the greatest strictness. Yet, 
as a practical convenience in speech, we often 
employ the comparative degrees for such 
words. The grammarian shudders over the 
expression, more complete. Nevertheless, such 
a usage has the advantage of expressing the 
thought briefly and clearly. The student 
should familiarize himself with the principle 
involved, so that his choice in the matter will 
be deliberately made. 

Better and Best 

The student should note that in the com- 
parative degree only two objects or two 
groups of objects are concerned. So, in 
speaking of two things, the comparative 
degree must be used, and never the super- 
lative. We should say always, for example, 
*^This is the better ^^^ when we wish to indicate 
the superiority of one object over the other 

[107] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



of two compared. The superlative, best^ 
should not be employed in such a case. Yet, 
it is very commonly used thus, though 
wrongly. The reason is that the word best 
is at once more emphatic on account of its 
superlative meaning, and also on account 
of its crisp brevity as a word. 

The student will do well to habituate him- 
self to careful correctness in the degrees of 
comparison. 

The Split Infinitive 

It is customarily asserted by the gram- 
marians that an adverb should never be 
placed between the preposition to used as the 
sign of the infinitive, and the verb to which 
the to belongs. For example, to gladly go 
would be an incorrect form of expression, 
since in it the adverb gladly comes between 
to and go. 

This particular error is called a split in- 
finitive, and it is much reprobated by the 
precise. The student should be careful to 
master the principle involved and to apply 
it in speaking and writing. It is a fact, not- 
withstanding, that such splitting of the in- 
finitive sometimes offei^s a means for exact 
Cio8] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



expression, where otherwise there might be 
some ambiguity. For that reason, many au- 
thorities not only condone the introduction 
of the adverb within the infinitive, but even 
defend it. 

Associated Conjunctions 

Certain conjunctions are used in pairs, 
sometimes in series, either in connection 
with single words, or with phrases or clauses. 
Such conjunctions are: although and yet^ as 
and asy as and so^ so and as^ both and and^ 
either and or, if and then^ neither and nor^ now 
and noWy whether and or^ etc. 

The student should take particular care to 
observe the association oi either with or, and 
of neither with nor. Either and or are to be 
used only in reference to two objects, and the 
same is true concerning neither and nor. A 
common error is the use of or^ instead of nor^ 
after neither. The mistake is emphasized by 
repeating or when more than two objects are 
concerned. Thus, it is wrong to say, neither 
man or woman^ and it is even more emphatic- 
ally wrong to say, neither man or woman or 
child. Instead of neither man or woman, the 
correct expression would be, neither man nor 

[109] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



woman. Instead of, neither man or woman or 
childy the correct expression would be, no man 
or woman or child. 

Oh and 

There is some diversity of use concerning 
the interjections oh and 0. The distinction 
between the two is actually very simple. 
The is properly always associated with 
direct address to some person or thing, that 
is, with the vocative case, as it was formerly 
called. Thus, in addressing the Deity, the 
form is properly, ''O Lord." 

So, too, the is employed before a pro- 
noun similarly; ye of little faith. It is also 
applied in connection with things as well as 
persons, when they are directly addressed: 
"O Rome, Rome, thou hast been," etc. 

Ohy on the contrary, stands as an independ- 
ent exclamation, and, while has no punc- 
tuation following it to separate it from the 
noun or pronoun with which it is associated, 
oh must be followed by either a comma or an 
exclamation mark. It should never begin 
with a capital unless from its position as the 
first word in a sentence. "Oh, that we two 
were maying ! " "I shall — oh, what's the use ?" 
[no] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



It as Subject 

An idiom of the language is the use of the 
pronoun it^ which of course is singular, as the 
subject of a verb that is followed by a pred- 
icate noun in the plural. For example, we 
may say quite properly: ^'It was six days 
ago''; ''It was his operations in stocks that 
ruined him''; "It was her love-songs that 
made the poetical fame of Provence enduring." 

Grammarians have been inclined to con- 
demn this usage, but their efforts to do away 
with it have been futile. As a matter of fact, 
an analysis justifies the practise in these cases, 
since in some instances the plural noun has 
actually an adverbial force. Thus, in the 
sentence, "It was ages ago," the words ages 
ago are equivalent to an adverb. They are 
used just as might be the adverb then. In 
other instances, the noun in the plural is asso- 
ciated with other words, so that the effect 
is of a phrase or clause having the force of a 
singular by reason of unity in the idea ex- 
pressed. In such a sentence as, "It was these 
things that I desired," all of the words follow- 
ing the verb was unite to express an idea that 
is essentially singular, although the predicate 

[in] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



noun things is plural. The use of it as the 
subject in such sentences is too convenient 
to be given up, and there can be no real ob- 
jection to it, since there is no least suggestion 
of ambiguity in the meaning. 

Numeral and Ordinal 

A common error is the use of a numeral fol- 
lowed by an ordinal adjective. For example, 
''The two first men in the line.** This should 
be corrected to read, "The first two men 
in the line.*' It is obvious that the first form 
of the statement contains an error of fact, 
since only one of the men is first in the line, 
the other of the two being second. The 
student must remember in all similar cases to 
place the ordinal before the numeral. 

It is possible that in some instances the 
reverse order would not be wrong, strictly 
speaking. Thus, where a company was march- 
ing two abreast, the first two might be des- 
ignated: the two firsty since the two men are 
on a parity. But even here the better form 
is the first two^ since it is exactly accurate, 
and follows the order that is usually im- 
perative. 

[112] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Only 

The student should cultivate particular 
care as to the position in which he places 
only. This should always modify the word 
or words immediately preceding it, or im- 
mediately following it. It is very fre- 
quently misplaced, and any mistake of such 
a sort causes either an ambiguity as to the 
meaning, or a positive error in the sense. 
Thus, for example, in the assertion, ''Only 
good men love righteousness,'" the meaning 
is clear. The clearness would be destroyed, 
were the word only misplaced, so as to make 
the sentence read, "Good men only love 
righteousness/' This might convey the idea 
of the original statement, but it might equally 
signify, "Good men love only righteousness/* 
A careful study of this matter will enable 
the student so always to place the word as to 
render its application certain. He must not 
be led astray by the fact that in his reading 
he will often find only in a wrong position. 
On the contrary, he should practise to attain 
facility in the correct use by detecting each 
error, and by mentally shifting the word to 
its proper position. 

CX13] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Number of the Verb 

There is a common tendency to make a 
mistake in the number of a verb when it is 
immediately preceded by a noun not its sub- 
ject, which is of a number different from that 
subject. Whether this noun be singular or 
plural, the effect is frequently to determine 
the number of the verb following it, and thus 
to cause a distinct grammatical error. For 
example: **The boy with all his companions 
were lost on the prairie.'* Here the error is, 
of course, in employing a plural verb with 
a singular subject. The subject is boy^ and 
the verb should be was. As a matter of fact, 
however, the phrase, with all his companions, 
very easily leads one astray, since the noun 
companions in the plural immediately precedes 
the verb. Exactly the same sort of error is 
likely to result when the subject of the sen- 
tence is in the plural, but the noun next to 
the verb is in the singular. In such case, it 
seems quite natural to follow the singular noun 
with a singular verb, forgetting the fact 
that the subject itself is plural. This error 
in the construction of a sentence is made re- 
peatedly by persons speaking, and it is found 
C114] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



almost as often in the work of writers. The 
student would do well to watch alertly for 
this mistake in conversation or on the printed 
page. When he has learned to detect the 
fault readily in others, he will be safeguarded 
against committing it himself. 

The Indirect Object 

A number of verbs take not only a direct 
object, but also what is called an indirect 
object. This second object is in reality gov- 
erned by a preposition that is understood, but 
is not expressed. The preposition is usually 
either to or for. The verb that oftenest has 
two objects in this manner is to tell. Thus, 
we say, "Tell me the truth.'' In this sen- 
tence, the word truth is the direct object of the 
verb tell; me is the indirect object. The 
Latin and many other languages have a 
particular case, the dative, with a distinctive 
ending for the noun or pronoun, to indicate 
the omitted preposition. Since we have no 
dative case in English, such an indirect ob- 
ject is put in the objective case. It is only 
with a few pronouns that there is any varia- 
tion from the form of the nominative. In 
the illustration given, the pronoun me is in 

[lis] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



the objective case, which has a form dijfferent 
from the nominative case of the same pronoun, 
/. But, if the sentence were to read, "Tell 
your son the truth,'' the word son, the indirect 
object of the verb tell, would be in the objective 
case, although the form of the word differs 
not at all from the nominative. In either of 
the sentences above, the preposition to might 
be introduced, and the meaning would remain 
exactly the same: "Tell the truth to me''; 
"Tell the truth to your son J' 

The verb to give governs two objects in the 
same fashion. The verb to make also may have 
both a direct object and an indirect, but with 
this word the omitted preposition is for. For 
example, "Make me a suit/' Here, me is 
the indirect object of the verb make, and the 
omitted preposition is for. The sentence 
might be changed, without altering the sense, 
to read : " Make a suit for me." 

The student will observe that when the prep- 
osition to or for is omitted, the order of the 
words is changed, and the indirect object of the 
verb is placed before the direct object. When 
the preposition is expressed, the prepositional 
phrase ordinarily follows the object of the verb, 
though not always, and not necessarily. 
Cii6] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



The many verbs governing a direct object 
and an indirect may be distinguished by test- 
ing with the prepositions, to and for. If the 
sense remains the same when the preposition 
is used and when it is omitted, as the order 
of the objects is changed, it is evident that 
the verb is of this class. 

The Cognate Object 

Certain verbs that are not properly transi- 
tive may take an object, when the meaning 
is thus emphasized- For example, "He slept 
the sleep of the righteous ''; ''He lived a life 
of infamy/' Such an object is sometimes 
termed the cognate object. 

The Idiomatic Objective 

One of the most curious idioms in the 
language is connected with the verb to givey 
and a few other verbs of allied meaning. In 
this peculiar use, the active form of the verb 
is changed to the passive; the indirect object 
is changed into the subject; the direct object 
is retained in the new sentence, but its posi- 
tion is anomalous. In fact, it defies the or- 
dinary rules of parsing. Let us consider the 
sentence, "The doctor gave the man a dri^k."' 

C117] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



In common speech, this may be changed 
about from the active to the passive so that it 
becomes, "The man was given a drink by the 
doctor/' Marty which was the indirect ob- 
ject of the active verb gave^ in the first sentence, 
has now become the subject of the passive 
verb was given. Thus far, the change is 
simple enough. The difficulty comes in the 
attempt to parse the noun drink. It is really 
outside the rules. For that reason, many 
grammarians condemn such a use. As a 
matter of fact, however, the use is too firmly 
established to be done away with by any 
such ban. The word drink in the sentence 
might perhaps be described as an idiomatic 
object. But, actually, this usage shows cap- 
itally how our language flourishes and takes 
its own forms idiomatically, quite undeterred 
by the protests of its grammatical critics. 

The Verbal Preposition 

Sometimes, when a transitive verb is fol- 
lowed by a preposition and its object, there is a 
peculiarly close relationship established be- 
tween the verb and the preposition, which is 
demonstrated curiously on changing the form 
of the sentence from the active voice to the 
[118] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



passive. In such a sentence as the following, 
"The nurse took care of the patient/' the 
form may be changed from the active to the 
passive thus: "The patient was taken care 
of by the nurse/' Here, the verbal phrase, 
zvas taken care o/, includes o/, although the 
word no longer has an object. Another ex- 
ample is afforded by at in connection with the 
verb to laugh. We say "The fellow was 
laughed at.'* The preposition here is es- 
sentially adverbial in its character. 

Formerly, it was the custom to place a 
hyphen between the verb and preposition in 
such case, in order to indicate the intimate 
connection. Ruskin, for example, would 
have written the sentence: "The fellow was 
laughed-at.'' This usage also is to be classed 
as one of the idioms of our language. 

The Case of Pronouns 

When an interrogative pronoun introduces 
a question, it may be the object of a verb that 
follows, although separated from it. Thus 
we say, "What did he say?'' or, "Which shall 
I choose?" and the like. Now, in the sen- 
tences quoted above, no mistake of a gram- 
matical sort is possible in the use of which or 

C119] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



whaty due to confusion over the case of the 
pronoun, since the nominative and the ob- 
jective forms are identical. So, we say, 
"What is it?^^ or "What has he said?" In 
either question, the pronoun is the same, al- 
though in the first sentence of the two what 
is in the nominative case, while in the second 
it is in the objective. 

But there is need of caution in connection 
with the use of the pronoun who as an in- 
terrogative. This is because there is a varia- 
tion in form between the nominative and the 
objective. We properly ask: "Who was 
it?'* thus using the nominative of the pro- 
noun. But we properly ask also, "Whom did 
you meet?'' here placing the pronoun in the 
objective case, since it is the object of the 
verb. 

It is in this connection that a grammatical 
blunder is commonly committed. It is very 
easy — so easy, indeed, that it seems natural 
— to put the interrogative pronoun in the 
nominative case, and to say, "Who did you 
meet?'' Probably the error has its origin in 
the fact that the pronoun stands at the open- 
ing of the sentence, and as it is thus employed 
at the outset its grammatical relation to the 
C1203 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



predicate is not anticipated. Moreover, the 
nominative form emphasizes the importance 
of the word. The mistake is made so fre- 
quently that it might almost be regarded as 
an idiom of the language. But it is not, for 
the simple reason that all educated persons 
who are careful of their speech take pains to 
employ the objective case when the pronoun 
is thus the object of a verb. The student 
should give particular attention to this matter, 
and learn to discriminate with accuracy as to 
when the pronoun is the subject of the verb 
and when it is the object, in order that he 
may use the nominative case and the objective 
respectively according to the grammatical 
requirement. 

He must be at pains not to be led astray by 
hearing who instead of whom issuing wrongly 
from the lips of his associates. He must cul- 
tivate correctness for himself by learning to 
detect such errors on the part of others. 

All that has been said above concerning 
the interrogative pronouns, is applicable, of 
course, to the relative pronouns. Again, the 
student may derive comfort from the fact that 
there is no change of form from nominative 
to objective, except as to who and whom. 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



And again he must bear in mind that, when- 
ever the relative is the object of a verb, it 
must be in the objective form, zvhom, even 
though it lead the sentence. 

The student must be diligent in mastering 
the predicate nominative in connection with 
pronouns having a different form for the ob- 
jective case. For example, he must say: 
''It is I"; "It is he"; "It is she"; "It is 
they"; He must not say: "It is me"; "It 
is him"; "It is her"; "It is them." This 
error of using the objective case of the pro- 
noun instead of the nominative is heard almost 
constantly. There is something approaching 
justification for it as to the first person. There 
seems to be a suggestion of self-assertiveness 
in the announcement, "It is I." There is 
certainly more modesty, if less grammar, in 
saying, "It's me." The truth of this fact is 
borne out by the French grammatical rule, 
which does not permit the use of the nomina- 
tive in such a case. We can hardly imagine a 
lovable child that would announce its presence 
by saying: "It is I." But, here again, the 
error is not accepted as an idiom of the 
language, and the student, ambitious to ac- 
quire correct speech, must familiarize himself 
C 122 ] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



with the principle involved, and become apt 
to apply it. 

Modesty is the reason for the grammatical 
rule that one should place the pronoun of the 
first person after any others: you and I; not 
/ and you; hifn and me; not me and him^ etc. 

Agreement of the Verb 

There is a grammatical rule to the effect 
that where different persons are joined as the 
subject of a verb, the verb agrees with the 
second person rather than with the third, and 
with the first rather than with the second. 
This rule includes the order of the persons, 
by which the second precedes the third, while 
both the second and third precede the first. 
According to this rule, a grammatically pre- 
cise person might properly declare, "Either 
you or he are mistaken''; or '"Either you 
or I am mistaken.'' In the first instance, the 
number of the pronoun you^ which is second 
person, determines the person and number of 
the verb, since the second person has the 
preference over the third. So, in the second 
sentence, the pronoun /, which is first person, 
determines the person and number of the verb, 

["3 3 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



since the first person is given the preference 
over the second. 

As a matter of fact, this rule should be 
honored in the breach, rather than in the ob- 
servance, because the construction that re- 
sults is a peculiarly awkward one. The 
student should take care to avoid this clumsy 
mode of expression. It is possible always to 
change the wording so as to secure an effect 
less offensive. This might be accomplished 
in the sentences above simply by a repetition 
of the verb. Thus, we would have, "Either 
you are mistaken, or he is''; "Either you are 
mistaken or I am.'' Another ready device 
for escape from any such perplexity is the 
employment of an auxiliary to the verb, 
which is uninflected. By reason of its form 
remaining the same for the three persons in 
both numbers, clumsiness is eliminated. So, 
we may say, "Either you or he must b^ mis- 
taken"; "Either you or I must be mistaken." 

Verb and Collective Noun 

Often, there is some difficulty in determin- 
ing the number of a verb that has for its sub- 
ject a collective noun — that is to say, a noun 
in the singular as concerns its form, but in 
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GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



the plural as concerns its meaning. Such 
words as family^ crowds multitude^ and a large 
number of others, are of this sort. In many- 
instances, the verb may be either singular 
or plural, according as we wish to emphasize 
the unity expressed by the subject, or the in- 
dividual parts of which the subject is com- 
posed. Thus, we may say, "'The multitude 
was vast''; but we may say also, "The mul- 
titude were cheering.'' It is obvious that in 
the first statement the unity of the assembly 
is emphasized, while in the second stress is 
laid on the individuals. 

The student should note that some plural 
words are regarded as singular in meaning, 
and therefore take a singular verb. Ex- 
amples of such words are means and news. 
We say properly, "The means is," etc., or, 
"The news is," etc. But means is, of course, 
used properly with a plural verb, when it 
refers to more than one thing. 

A similar principle determines the use of a 
verb in the singular when the subject is a 
plural having to do with money or the like. 
"The thousand dollars has been spent," is 
a proper expression grammatically considered. 
It would seem as if the words, the thousand 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



dollars^ were regarded merely as specifying 
the sum, which is one and singular. 

An idiomatic variation in the plural of the 
verb has to do with the word many. We use 
a singular verb in such a sentence as, " Many 
a child is unhappy/' The verb here agrees 
with its subject child^ although that subject is 
really plural in idea by reason of many pre- 
ceding it. But when the sentence is, "Many 
children are unhappy,'' there is no irregularity. 
The irregularity reappears, however, when 
the word many is preceded by the indefinite 
article and an adjective, as in the sentence, 
^'A great many children are unhappy." The 
singular idea conveyed by the article a is not 
carried out in the subject, which is essentially 
plural and therefore the verb is plural. A few 
similarly requires a plural verb. 

Kerb and Compound Subject 

When and connects a number of nouns that 
together form a subject in the plural, the verb 
is in the plural number. But, sometimes, the 
conjunction and is placed between nouns 
which still retain the force of a singular for the 
subject, because of their relationship. Thus 
we may say, "This man and prince was of a 
[126] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



noble character." The verb was is in the 
singular because the subject, vian and princey 
is descriptive of one person. We may properly 
say: ''The man and prince were of a noble 
character." Here, two persons are indicated, 
and consequently the verb must be in the 
plural. 

Occasionally, and is associated with an- 
other word, so that its effect on the number 
of the subject is nullified. This is especially 
the case when and is joined with not. In the 
sentence, "Love, and not hate, moves the 
universe," the verb is singular, because its 
subject is the singular noun, love. And not 
hatCy is really an independent phrase, which 
has no effect on the number of the verb. 

Where there is a compound subject, but the 
verb follows one of the nouns, while the other 
nouns come later in the sentence, the verb 
agrees in number with the noun preceding it 
as its subject. For example: ''The man was 
ready, and his wife and the children"; "At 
this interruption the members of the con- 
gregation were profoundly shocked, and the 
clergyman also." 

When the verb precedes a number of nouns, 
which form the compound subject, it agrees 

[127] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



in number with the first of the nouns, and this 
rule applies especially when the verb itself 
is preceded by an introductory word such as 
there or such. For example, ''There is suffi- 
cient space and all the materials necessary/' 
But the plural verb also may be used, if pre- 
ferred. 

It as the subject may cause the verb to be 
singular, although the predicate noun or 
nouns may be plural. Thus, "It is the men 
of genius who fashion the ornaments of the 
world." 

Adjective or Adverb 

There is sometimes confusion as to whether 
an adverb or an adjective should be used. In 
all such cases, the test must be by determin- 
ing whether the application of the meaning is 
to the subject or to the verb. For example, 
we may say: "He advanced, calm in the face 
of peril,'' or we may say, "He advanced, 
calmly in the face of peril." In the first sen- 
tence, the word calm is a predicate adjective^ 
which qualifies the pronoun he; but, in the 
second sentence, the word calmly is an adverb 
modifying the verb, thus defining the char- 
acter of the action expressed by the word 
advanced. 
[ 128 ] 



GRAMxMAR MADE EASY 



A similar distinction must be exercised in 
connection with many sentences. The 
student must train himself to discriminate as 
to whether he means to describe a quality 
possessed by the subject of the sentence or 
to indicate something as to the manner of the 
action expressed by the verb. For the first 
of these two purposes, he should employ an 
adjective; for the second, an adverb. Thus, 
*'I look sadly'' at another person, but to that 
other person, ''I look sad.'' 

The student should note at this point a very 
common error, made by educated persons, 
curiously enough, rather than by the illiterate. 
This has to do with the verb to feeL When a 
person says, ^'I feel bad," his utterance is 
grammatically correct. In this particular in- 
stance, the adjective qualifies the pronoun 
myselfy which is not expressed, but is the 
object of the verb feel. One who has studied 
grammar to some extent, so that he appreciates 
the relation between a verb and its adverb, 
makes the mistake of believing that the ad- 
verb should be used here, saying, "I feel 
badly." "V et^ the same blunderer would never 
say, ''I feel hotly," which would be of exactly 
the same construction. 

[129] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Than 

The student should take pains to under- 
stand that the word than is not a preposition. 
By this means, he will be able to avoid many 
pitfalls in the case of a following pronoun. 
That following pronoun may be in either the 
nominative or the objective case, according 
to the sense of the sentence. If than were a 
pronoun, it would always be followed properly 
by the objective case. As a matter of fact, 
however, the pronoun that follows than has 
its case nominative or objective according as 
to whether it is the subject or object of a verb 
that is understood. In such a sentence as, 
"They serve their God more zealously than 
me,'' the pronoun is in the objective case be- 
cause it is the object of the verb servCy which 
is understood, though not expressed. But, 
in such a sentence as, "They serve their God 
more zealously than I,'' the pronoun I is in the 
nominative case because it is the subject of 
the verb understood, serve. The student, in 
any instance, may determine with certainty 
the case of the pronoun by supplying the verb 
necessary to make the sense complete, and 
observing whether, according to that sense, 
C130] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



the pronoun would be the subject or the ob- 
ject in the dependent clause introduced by 
than. 

Had Rather and Had Better 

Old idiomatic phrases in English were had 
rather and had hettery which are still current. 
There is the best of literary authority for 
these, and the student may safely use them. 
Some grammarians, however, have insisted 
on the substitute form would rather^ and it is 
commonly employed. This newer form is 
permissible, but it must be remembered that 
had rather is correct English. So, too, is had 
better. Would better is objectionable, although 
it is often heard and oftener seen. The student 
should shun would better^ would sooner^ and 
the like. 



[131] 



CHAPTER III 

VULGARISMS 

There are certain vulgarisms against which 
the student must guard himself scrupulously. 
Perhaps the commonest of these is the con- 
traction dorit instead of doesnH. 

It is proper to say, ''I don^t/' as a con- 
traction for ''I do not'^ it is not proper to 
say "He don't/' as a contraction for "He does 
not." The wrong contraction is popular by 
reason of its convenience. 

The like reason explains the contraction 
ainty which is used for am noty is not and are 
noty and its fellow form haint. These are con- 
stantly employed, but the student must regard 
them as unpardonable offenses against good 
language. 

Another vulgarism is the use of them instead 
of thosey to qualify a noun, as in the sentence, 
"I knowed them fellers wa'n't up to no good." 
A more careful speaker would begin the sen- 
tence, "I knew those fellows — /' The stu- 
[ 132 ] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



dent should bear in mind that them is never thus 
used to qualify a noun. 

Those should not be substituted for that 
before a singular noun. This is a curious 
error that arises from a plural idea in the 
phrase. Thus, because the phrase that kind 
of men has a plural idea in it, the careless 
speaker changes it to those kind of men. 

Really y not real^ should always be the form 
before an adjective. Thus, it is proper to say, 
a really good man, a really hady etc. It is not 
proper to say, a real good man^ a real bad, etc. 

Care must be exercised in the use of the 
preposition between^ to remember that it is 
properly employed in reference to only two 
persons or things. If more than two are con- 
cerned, the corresponding preposition must 
be among. For example, it is right to say: 
between you and me. It is not right to say, 
between us three. Here the preposition should 
be among. 

The student should note that in the prepo- 
sitional phrase above, between you and me^ the 
pronoun me is properly in the objective case, 
since it is one of the two objects of the prepo- 
sition between. He should avoid the mistakes 
often made by persons of some education, 

[133 ] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



who take pains to put the second pronoun in 
the nominative case, thus saying between you 
and I. The reason for this error is that they 
have harkened to the teacher who warned 
them against a wrong use of the objective 
case in such sentences as, "You and me have 
got to go,'' and the Hke. The nominative case 
of the pronouns, 7, we^ he and she must be 
employed always for the subject of a verb, 
but the objective case must be used for these 
pronouns when they are the objects of either 
a verb or a preposition. When the student 
has trained himself to say, "You and I are 
friends,'' or, "You and he are friends," he 
must not let this usage betray him into the 
fault of saying, between you and /, or between 
you and he, or other similar errors in the case 
of pronouns following any preposition. 

The student must acquire a familiarity with 
the parts of irregular verbs such as to prevent 
that wrong use of them which is characteristic 
among the uneducated. He should study 
the list until every detail is mastered. In 
addition, he must bear in mind always that 
an auxiliary verb is to be used only with a 
participle, never with the past tense of another 
verb. For example, the present tense of the 
Cx34] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



verb to do has for the first person singular, / 
do; the past tense has / did^ and the past- 
perfect tense has / have done. With the aux- 
ihary have (or has) only done can be used. On 
the contrary, done cannot be substituted for 
did as the past form without an auxiliary. 
Only the illiterate person says, ^'I done it,'* 
or *'I have did it.'* Similarly, the correct 
forms are: / see^ I saWy I have seen. Seen is 
vulgarly substituted for saw ; / seen^ you seen^ 
he seen, they seen. Have (or has) saw is equally 
objectionable. Thorough knowledge of the 
irregular verbs will save the student from 
such gross blunders. 



Ci3S] 



CHAPTER IV 

PUNCTUATION 

The object of punctuation is to aid the 
reader toward clear understanding of what 
is written. 

The comma (,) is used to separate several 
subjects or predicates. For example, "Love, 
fear, hope and despair''; "They raged, fought, 
screamed and died." 

The comma is also used to inclose clauses 
and phrases, and words in apposition. A 
comma follows the name of a person addressed, 
or his designation. For example, "James, 
come here,'' "Fellow, go away." This use is 
followed also in connection with any person 
or thing apostrophized, as in the quotation, 
"O Rome, Rome, thou hast been a tender 
nurse to me." 

The effect of various conjunctions is often 
emphasized by preceding them with a comma. 
For example, powerful^ yet silent; softy but 
penetrating. 
[136] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



Inverted parts of a sentence are set off by 
a comma. For example, ^'He is well, I hope/' 

The various parts of an address or a date, 
and the like, are distinguished by the insertion 
of commas. For example. New Torky Sep- 
tember 2jy 1919. The student should note, 
however, that a comma is not to be placed 
between the month and the day of the month. 

The semicolon (;) is used chiefly between 
coordinate clauses in a compound sentence. 
The present tendency is toward a greatly 
lessened employment of the semicolon. 

The colon (:) calls particular attention to 
whatever follows. It may be used in a sen- 
tence to separate two equal clauses, or it may 
be used at the end of a sentence in place of 
a period, when it is desired to point out an 
intimate relationship with the following sen- 
tence. 

Every sentence is closed by a period (.) un- 
less it be an interrogation or an exclamation. 
A period is used after all abbreviations, except 
when the omission of letters is indicated by 
an apostrophe. 

The interrogation mark (?) is used instead 
of the period at the end of a question. 

The exclamation mark (!) is used instead of 

C137] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



the period at the end of an exclamatory sen- 
tence. But it may be used also in place of 
a comma after an exclamation anywhere 
within a sentence. For example, ^' Would 
he were here!^' "And she, alas! could only 
wait in silence." c^ 

The apostrophe C) is used in place of an 
omitted letter or letters in a word. Thus, 
shanH is equivalent to shall not^ the first apos- 
trophe taking the place of the omitted //, and 
the second taking the place of the omitted 
0. The apostrophe is also the sign of the 
possessive case. For example, Johns hat, the 
horses^ heads. 

The hyphen (-) is used between the com- 
ponent parts of a compound word, such as 
double-faced. It is employed also after a 
syllable at the end of a line when the remain- 
der of the word begins the following line. 



C138] 



CHAPTER V 

CAPITALS 

A CAPITAL letter should begin: 

1. Every sentence in prose 

2. Every line in poetry 

3. The names of the months 

4. The days of the week 

5. Names of persons and places 

and the adjectives derived from these 

6. All appellations of the Deity 

7. A direct quotation 

8. The important words in titles and 

headings 

9. The pronoun / 

10. The interjection 

1 1 . Honorary titles associated with names 

of persons, as the Reverend Mr. 
Smithy Doctor Jones. 

[139] 



CHAPTER VI 

CONCLUSION 

The student should appreciate the fact 
that our English language is essentially a 
logical one. That is to say, its arrangement 
is such as to present in their natural order the 
various constituent parts of a sentence. Other 
languages, in many instances, are highly in- 
flected, and depend on this quality for their 
intelligibility. The lack of inflections in Eng- 
lish necessitates exactness in the order of 
words for the interpretation of the thought. 
For example, in the sentence, "I struck the 
man,'' the order of the words is vital, and 
every word is essential. The pronoun / is 
required, as it might not be were the verb 
form inflected, for its omission would leave 
uncertain the identity of the striker. The 
form struck would be the same were the 
striker /, he^ we^ you or they. The object man 
follows the verb in its logical place. Since only 
the position indicates its case, it should not 
precede the verb, but should follow it as the 
[ 140 ] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



object of the action expressed by the verb. In 
Latin, the object might begin the sentence 
without confusion, since the form of the word 
would show it to be in the accusative (ob- 
jective) case. Were it placed at the begin- 
ning in an English sentence, the logical effect 
would be to regard it as the nominative, the 
subject of a verb to follow. ''The man I 
struck'" is not good English standing alone as 
a complete sentence. "The man I struck 
was seriously hurt,'' is perfectly good English. 
Man is here the subject of the verb waSy and 
it is therefore properly placed at the begin- 
ning of the sentence. It is not now the ob- 
ject of the verb struck. That object is omitted 
for convenience. If expressed, it would be 
the relative pronoun zvhoniy giving the sen- 
tence the form: "The man whom I struck 
was seriously hurt." In this case, the logical 
order requires that the object of the verb 
struck should not follow, but should precede 
in order that it may be closely associated with 
the noun to which it refers. 

These few suggestions are sufficient to guide 
the student toward a consideration of the 
logical quality in our language. We are com- 
pelled to depend on a right arrangement of the 

[ 141 ] 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY 



words we use, if we would make our meaning 
clear. 

Thus, the prime requirements for good 
language are simplicity and clearness. And 
the two are interdependent. The principles 
set forth in the foregoing pages sum up all the 
facts concerning the structure of our speech 
that are essential. Equipped with the knowl- 
edge thus conveyed, the student should apply 
it to the cultivation of logical methods in 
both speaking and writing. By such means, 
he may attain toward a mastery of simplicity 
and clearness, twin tests of all literary art. 



[142] 




THHERE is no royal road to learning. 

IT is an old saying, and a true one, in a sense: 
for prince and peasant must alike travel 
the path. 

"VT^T, there are many paths, and great differ- 
JL ences among them, as they lead to the 
temple of knowledge. In some, the going is easy : 
in some, hard. In some, the journeying is 
pleasant and profitable: in some, toilsome — a 
weary scramble over many stumbling blocks. 

THE builder of the road is the teacher. It 
is his task to smooth the way, and to 
make it straight: or to leave it all cluttered, 
a twisted, haphazard course, that runs roughly 
and reaches nowhere. 

IN the "Made Easy'' Series, it has been the 
publisher's purpose to provide for the 
student the best possible road to learning — a 
road truly royal in its simplicity, its worth: 
a road wide and direct, and free from foolish, 
needless litter. 



THE various writers of the books in the 
series have been chosen for their special 
fitness. Such fitness includes, in the first 
place, mastery of the particular subject: in 
the second place, ability to interpret knowl- 
edge to others. 

RIGHT teaching makes easy learning. Few 
subjects are really hard to learn, when 
properly set before the pupil. These volumes 
are the product of a painstaking care to simplify 
every detail of instruction, yet to make it com- 
plete. The result for the student is, indeed, 
a learning made easy, yet none the less exact, 
thorough, wholly adequate for his needs. 

The volumes now ready, or in the course of 
preparation — are: 

Arithmetic Made Easy Drawing Made Easy 
Spelling Made Easy Dressmaking Made Easy 

Penmanship Made Easy Dancing Made Easy 
Grammar Made Easy Etiquette Made Easy 

Keeping Young Made Easy 

Love Letters Made Easy 

Shorthand Made Easy 

Bookkeeping Made Easy 

Entertaining Made Easy 

Tricks and Magic Made Easy 

Mental Healing Made Easy 

Further titles will he added as opportunity presents itself to secure 
the proper type of manuscript. 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 
GRAMMAR 



Part I 
ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR 

Chapter I 

THE NOUN 

Question: Into how many classes are all words divided? 
Answer: Eight. 

§1: What is grammar? 

A: The science dealing with these eight classes. 

^; What are the eight divisions? 

A: Noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposi- 
tion, conjunction, interjection. 

§1; What does the word noun mean? 
A: Literally, a name. 

^; How is the term used ? 

A: To designate the name of anything. 

^; What is an example? 

A: The word water is the name given to a liquid made 
of two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen. 

^; What is a great body of salt water called? 

A: A sea. 

SI; What is the word sea? 
\i: A noun. 

[145] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

^; What are other examples of nouns? 
A: The words ice and steam to describe changed forms 
of water. 

§1: Are the names of abstract ideas also nouns? 
A: Yes. 

^; What are examples? 

A: Economy^ prodigality. 

^: What are the two divisions of nouns? 
A: Common and proper. 

^; What are common nouns? 

A: Those names appHed to individual members of 
groups. 

^; What are examples? 
A: Cat and dog, 

^; Of which sort are almost all nouns? 
A: Common. 

^; What is a proper noun? 

A: The special name given to a certain person or 
thing. 

^; What is an example? 

A: The name Leviathan as given to a ship. 

^: May the same word be both a proper and a com- 
mon noun? 

A: Yes, leviathan as the name of a prehistoric sea 
monster is a common noun. 

^.- What is the name Smith? 
A: A proper noun. 

^; Is the word smith also a common noun? 
A: Yes. 
[146] 



THE NOUN 



^; What are all names of persons ? 

A: Proper nouns. 

^; What is a general division of humanity? 

A: Into male and female. 

^; Does a like division extend to all living creatures .^^ 

A: Yes. 

^; What is the relation of this fact to grammar.? 

A: The gender of nouns is regulated by it. 

^; How.? 

A: The names of males are nouns of the masculine 
gender; of females, feminine gender; of any- 
thing either male or female, of neuter gender. 

^: What are examples ? 

A: King and bull are masculine, queen and cow are 
feminine. 

^.* What is an advantage in the English language.? 
A: Simplicity in the matter of gender, which is much 
more complicated in other tongues. 

^; What is another attribute of the noun.? ' 
A: Person. 

^; What are the variations in person.? 
A: It may be either first, second or third. 

^; What are the distinctions.? 

A: A noun that is the name of one speaking is in the 
first person; the name of the one addressed is 
in the second person; the name of a person or 
thing spoken of is in the third person. 

^; What is another attribute of nouns.? 
A: Number. 

[ 147 ] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



^; What are the divisions of number? 
A: Singular and plural. 

^; When is a noun singular? 

A: When a single person or thing is concerned. 

^; When is a noun plural? 

A: When it is the name of more than one person or 
thing. 

^; How is the plural usually formed in English words? 
A: By adding s or es to the singular. 

^; What is another attribute of nouns? 
A: Case. 

^; What are the divisions of case? 

A: Nominative, possessive and objective. 

^; Is there any difference m the form of the noun for 

the nominative and objective cases? 
A: No. 

^.* How are these cases distinguished ? 
A: By the noun's relations to other words. 

^; What are examples? 

A: The subject of a verb is in the nominative case, 

but the object of a verb or preposition is in the 

objective case. 

^; What of the possessive case? 

A: This has a distinctive form adding 'j to noun. 

^; What does this sign at the end of a noun indicate? 
A: Possession. 

^; What is an example? 

A: The phrase the boy's hat shows that the hat spoken 
of belongs to the boy. 

[148] 



THE NOUN 



^; How is the possessive indicated for plural words? 
A: The apostrophe after the s of the plural is sufficient. 

^; What of a singular noun ending in s ? 
A: The addition of the apostrophe is sufficient for the 
possessive, but another s is sometimes added. 

^; When a noun is said to be in apposition, what is 
meant ? 

A: The word is used to describe a noun placed im- 
mediately after another noun, in order to define 
such preceding noun. 

§1; What is an example? 

A: The newcomer, a stranger, bowed. 

^; Which is the noun in apposition ? 
A: The noun stranger is in apposition, with the noun 
newcomer which it defines. 

^; What is the case of a noun in apposition? 
A: It is always that of the principal noun. 



C149] 



Chapter II 

THE PRONOUN 

Question: What is a pronoun ? 

Answer: A word used for a noun, a substitute. 

^: What is the advantage of pronouns? 
A: Avoidance of tiresome repetitions of a particular 
noun. 

^.* What is the name given to the noun for which the 

pronoun stands? 
A: The antecedent. 

^.- What does this word mean? 
A: Literally, that going before. 

^.- Why is the word antecedent appropriate? 
A: Because usually the noun is first used, thus going 
before, and afterward the pronoun is substituted. 

^; Are there exceptions ? 

A: Yes; sometimes there is no antecedent expressed 

and sometimes a pronoun may serve as an 

antecedent. 

^: In what way do pronouns resemble nouns? 
A: They have gender, person, number, case. 

^; What is the rule? 

A: The pronoun must agree with its antecedent in 
gender, person and number. 

C150] 



THE PRONOUN 



^; What is a personal pronoun? 

A: One varying in form according as it represents a 

noun of the first person or the second or the 

third. 

^; What distinguishes the personal pronoun? 
A: They are more highly inflected than any other 
words in our language. 

% What are the personal pronouns? 
A: I, thou, he, she, it, in the singular and we, you and 
they in the plural. 

^; What are the varying forms of these pronouns for 
the different cases? 

A: The nominative is /, possessive my or mine, ob- 
jective me, in the singular, and similarly we, 
our or ours, us, in the plural. 

^; What are the forms for the second person? 

A: Nominative thou, possessive thy or thine, objective 

thee in the singular, and you, your or yours, you, 

in the plural. 

^; Is there any difference in these forms to represent 

gender? 
A: No. 

^; Is this true as to the forms for the third person? 
A: No, the forms vary, for masculine, feminine and 
neuter. 

^: What are the masculine forms for the pronoun of 
the third person ? 

A: For the singular, nominative he, possessive his, ob- 
jective him. 

[151] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



^; What are the feminine forms? 

A: For the singular, nominative she^ possessive her 
or hersy objective her. 

^: What are the neuter forms? 

J: For the singular, nominative it, possessive its, 
objective it. 

^; What of the plural forms for the pronoun of the 

third person? 
J: They are the same for all genders. 

^; What are they? 

A: For the plural, nominative they, possessive their 
or theirs, objective them. 

^: What is to be noted as to our usage concerning 
the gender of pronouns? 

A: The neuter pronoun it is used when the sex of the 
noun for which it stands is disregarded as in 
speaking of animals and sometimes of children. 

^; How is the gender of the antecedent described 

in such cases? 
J: The noun is said to be of a common gender. 

^: What are examples? 

A: The nouns animal and child. 

% Is the pronoun standing for a noun of common 

gender always neuter? 
A: No, it varies according to circumstances. 

^; What is an example? 

A: The word friend is a noun of common gender, but 
the pronoun he or she would stand for it accord- 
ing as the friend referred to was a man or a woman. 

[152] 



THE PRONOUN 



^; What are other examples of nouns of common 
gender? 

A: Neighbor^ enemyy teacher. 

i^; What gender of the pronoun is usually employed 
when the gender of such an antecedent is un- 
known ? 

A: The masculine pronoun is commonly employed. 

^; What is the difference between the two forms of 

the possessive case? 
A: The first is used when the pronoun is followed by 

a noun, the second when it stands alone. 

^; What are examples? 

A: My hat, our hat; the hat is miney the hat is ours. 

^: What of the forms his and its? 

A: They remain unchanged whether or not a noun 
follows the pronoun. 

^; How is a compound personal pronoun formed? 
A: By adding self or selves to the nominative or ob- 
jective. 
^: What are such compounds ? 

A: Myself, ourselves, thyself, yourself, yourselves, him- 
self, herself, itself, themselves. 

^; What is to be noted of these compounds? 
A: That the possessive case of the prefix is used in 
some instances, but not in all. 

^; Why is the objective case of the prefix used in the 

forms himself and themselves? 
A: To avoid the awkwardness of hisself and theirselves. 
% What is a demonstrative pronoun? 
A: One referring directly to its antecedent. 

[153] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



^; What are the demonstrative pronouns? 
A: This and thaty in the singular, these and those in the 
plural. 

^; What is the difference in meaning? 
A: This refers to an antecedent somehow closer, while 
that refers to an antecedent more remote. 

^.- What is an example? 

A: This is my seat, that is yours. 

§1; Is the distinction applied also to time? 
A: Yes. 

^.- What is an example? 

A: This is the day we celebrate; that was a wonderful 
day. 

^: What is to be noted in reference to the demonstra- 
tive pronoun ? 

A: The antecedent may be a whole clause or sentence 
instead of a single noun. 

^.* What is an example? 

A: Will he ever return, answer me that. 

^: What is the antecedent of that? 

A: The entire question. Will he ever return? 

^; What is an interrogative pronoun? 
A: One used in questions. 

§1; How many are there? 

A: There are three, which serve also as relative pro- 
nouns. 

% What are they? 
A: Whoy which, what.- 

[154] 



THE PRONOUN 



^; Are they declined ? 

A: Only who has varying case forms. 

^; What are these? 

A: For both singular and plural, masculine and 
feminine, nominative who, possessive whose, ob- 
jective whom. 

^; What of which and what? 
A: They are invariable. 

^; How is the possessive case indicated .? 
A: By of preceding the pronoun. 

^; When are zuho, whose and whom used .? 
A. When they refer to a person or persons, whether 
masculine or feminine. 

^; What oi which and what? 

A: They are broader in scope, being used in interroga- 
tions concerning persons, animals and objects. 

^; What is a peculiarity of interrogative pronouns .^^ 
A: They always lack an antecedent. 

^; What is a relative pronoun.? 

A: One referring to an expressed antecedent. 

^.* What are the relative pronouns.? 

A: Who, which, what, that, 

^: Do these have various case forms.? 
A: Only for who, which has the possessive whose and 
objective whom, like the interrogative. 

^; Are the forms of the relative pronouns the same for 

both masculine and feminine.? 
A: Yes. 

r 155 ] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



% For singular and plural? 

J: Yes. 

^; How is the possessive indicated for which, what and 

that? 
A: By of before the pronoun. 
^; What is to be noted as to the antecedent of a 

relative pronoun.? 
A: The antecedent may be a clause of a sentence 

instead of a noun. 
^; What are the distinctions as to gender for relative 

pronouns } 
A: The same as those for interrogative pronouns, 

^; For what persons may who and that be employed? 
A: For any one of the three persons. 

^; What of which and what? 

A: These are used only in the third person. 

^; What terminations are sometimes added to who 

or whom, which and what ? 
A: Ever and soever, 
^; What is the effect? 
A: The scope of the pronoun is broadened. 

^; What name is given to such pronouns as whoever 

and whatsoever? 
A: They are called compound relative pronouns. 

^; When a pronoun refers to an indefinite object 

how is this fact expressed ? 
A: The pronoun itself is termed an indefinite pronoun. 

^; What are such pronouns? 

A: Another, any, both, each, either, neither, none, one, 
other, some, such. 

[156: 



THE PRONOUN 



^; Are there variations for cases for these? 
A: No. 

^; Which of them have no plural? 

A: Another, each, either and neither are always singular. 

^; Which are used in both singular and plural ? 
A: Some and such. 

^: What of a7iy and both? 

A: These are employed only as plurals. 

^; Have any of the relative pronouns variations for 

number? 
A: Yes; one is singular, ones plural, other singular, 

others plural. 

^; What of none? 

A: It is singular, but is often used in a plural sense. 

^; What is a pronominal adjective? 
A: It is a pronoun used before a noun or pronoun to 
qualify the meaning. 

^; What is an equivalent term? 
A: An adjective pronoun. 

^; What indefinite pronouns may be thus used as 

adjectives ? 
A: All except none, 

^: Which of the interrogatives and relatives? 
A: Which and what. 

^: Which of the demonstratives ? 

A: This, these, that, those. 

^j Which pronouns are never pronominal adjectives? 
A: Who and none. 



[157 : 



Chapter III 

THE ADJECTIVE 

Question: What is an adjective ? 

Answer: A word that describes a noun or a pronoun. 

^; What are examples? 

A: In the phrases, a big dog, the small horse, thin 

wood, open sea, the words: big^ small, thiuy open,. 

are adjectives. 

^; Is the adjective always placed next to the noun it 

qualifies? 
A: No. 

^; What is an example? 

A: In the phrase, the house is warm, the adjective 
warm is separated from the noun house. 

^: Wh:it of the numerals? 

A: The numerals, one, two, three, etc., are employed as 
adjectives. 

^; What are examples? 

A: In the phrases: three men, seven women, the 
numerals three and seven serve as adjectives. 

§1: What is a particular name for such adjectives? 
A: Limiting adjectives. 

^; What other adjectives are of this class ? 
A: Those of quantity and measure. 

C158] 



THE ADJECTIVE 



^: What are examples? 

A: Single^ double^ hourlyy annually, 

§1: What is the usual position of an adjective in relation 

to its noun? 
J: It precedes the noun. 

^; What of its position with pronouns? 
J: It always follows a pronoun. 

^; What is an example? 

J: We saw him alive an hour before. 

^; Are adjectives declined in English? 
J: No; the form is not changed for gender, person, 
number or case. 

(^. What of the comparison of adjectives ? 
J: There are three degrees, the positive, the com- 
parative, and the superlative. 

^: What is the significance of these? 

A: In the positive, the use of the adjective makes no 
comparison with another object; in the compara- 
tive, reference is made to another object by the 
adjective; in the superlative, the adjective ex- 
presses the extreme of its quality for its noun 
or pronoun as compared with other objects. 

^: What is an example of the positive degree? 

A: The smart boy, in which phrase there is no com- 
parison with another boy, and the form of the 
adjective is unchanged. 

^: What is an example of the comparative degree? 

A: The smarter boy, in which the adjective carries a 
reference to another boy not so smart, as shown by 
the ending er, the sign of the comparative degree. 

[159] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



^; What may be used instead of the termination er? 
A: The word more preceding the adjective, or the word 

less. 

SI; What is an example? 
A: A boy less smart. 

^; What is an example of the superlative degree? 
A: The greatest man in the world, in which est of the 
adjective is the sign of the superlative degree. 

^; What is the rule of words of one syllable as to 

comparison ? 
A: For the comparative, er is added to the adjective; 

for the superlative est is added. 

^.* May these terminations be used for longer words? 
A: They are common for words of two syllables. 

^; What forms are used for the comparative when 

the adjective has more than two syllables? 
A: More or less precedes the adjective. 

^.- What for the superlative? 

A: Most or least precedes the adjective. 

^.* Is the position of most variable ? 

A: It is in a few cases added as a termination. 

^; What is an example? 
A: Foremost. 

^: What is to be noted concerning the comparison of 
adjectives ? 

A: That the comparative degree includes only two 
objects or groups of objects, while the super- 
lative includes more than two. 
[ i6o ] 



THE ADJECTIVE 



^; What word precedes the object of the comparison 

in the comparative degree? 
A: Than. 

^: What is an example? 
A: He is younger than she is. 

^; What word precedes the object in the superlative 

degree ? 
J: Usually, of. 

^: What is an example? 
A: The happiest of men. 

^; May other words be used instead of of? 
A: Yes, as in the phrase, the happiest man in the 
world. 

^; Is the object of comparison ever omitted ? 
A: Yes, it is often merely implied. 

^.- What is an example? 

A: The happiest man is he who knows peace. 

^; What are numerals? 
A: Adjectives of number. 

^; Into what two classes are they divided? 
A: Cardinals and ordinals. 

^; What do cardinals indicate? 

A: Number without any qualifications. 

^.* What are examples? 

A: One man, seven women, sixty children. 

^.- Are the numerals employed otherwise than as 

adjectives? 
A: Yes, as nouns, 

C i6i ] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



% What is an example? 
A: Seventy-five were killed. 

^; What is to be noted of this example? 

A: That the cardinal is used as a plural noun. 

^; What does an ordinal signify? 

A: A certain place in a series of numbers. 

^; How are the ordinals formed? 

J: Usually, by a suffix to the cardinal. 

^; What are exceptions? 

A: First and second are not derived from one and 
two. 

^; What are other ordinals? 

A: From three to twelve, they are third, fourth, fifths 

sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh;, 

twelfth. 

^; How are the ordinals of the 'teens formed ? 
A: By the addition of th to the cardinals. 

^: What are examples? 

A: Thirteenth, fourteenth, etc. 

^: Is th used also for higher numbers? 
A: Yes, for all the higher numbers. 

^; What are examples? 

A: Twentieth, hundredth, thousandth. 

^; Are ordinals used as nouns? 
A: Yes, usually with the preceding. 

^; What is an example? 
A: The first and the fifth are the same. 
[162] 



THE ADJECTIVE 



^; How many articles are there? 

A: Two, the indefinite and the definite. 

^; What is the indefinite article? 

A: A or an, a standing before words beginning with a 

consonant, and an before words beginning with 

a vowel. 

^; What is the significance of the indefinite article? 
A: It indicates one of a group, but does not specify a 
particular one. 

^; What is an example? 
A: Give me a glass. 

^; What is the definite article? 
A: The. 

^; What does it signify? 

A: It refers specifically to one person or thing or group. 

^; What are examples? 

A: The heart, the truth, the old days. 

^; What is the order when the article and adjectives 

both precede a noun? 
A: The article first, then any adjectives. 

^; What is an example? 
A: The good boys. 



[163] 



Chapter IV 

THE VERB 

'Question: What is a verb? 

Answer: That part of speech wnich asserts sometning 
concerning its subject. 

^; What is the subject? 

A: One or more nouns or pronouns. 

^; What is an example? 

A: In the sentence, the boy eats, eats is a verb, which 
asserts something concerning the boy, its subject. 

§1: What are the two classes of verbs? 
A: Transitive and intransitive. 

^.- What is a transitive verb? 

A: One having an object of the action. 

^.* What is an intransitive verb? 
A: One having no object. 

^: What are examples? 

A: In the sentence, the boy eats candy, eats is transi- 
tive, having an object candy ; in the sentence, 
the boy sleeps, sleeps is intransitive, having no 
object. 

^; What is another classification of verbs ? 
A: As either principal or auxiliary. 

[ 164 ] 



THE VERB 



^; What is a principal verb? 
A: One complete in itself. 

^.* What are examples? 

A: Eats and sleeps given above. 

^.' What is an auxiliary verb? 

A: One not complete in itself, but serving to define a 
principal verb. 

^.* What is an example? 

A: I shall hope, in which shall is an auxiliary. 

^; What is another classification of verbs ? 
A: As regular or irregular, according to their way of 
changing their form. 

^; How are the forms changed in regular verbs? 
A: By adding ed for the past tense and the past 
participle. 

§1; What is an example? 

A: The verb turn has turned for the past tense and the 
past participle. 

^; What is an example of an irregular verb? 
A: Doy which has the past tense did and the past 
participle done. 

^: Are there many irregular verbs in English ? 
A: Comparatively few. 

^; What is the active voice of verbs? 

A: When the subject is presented as acting. 

^: What is an example? 

A: The fire heats the room, in which the subject fire, 
is shown in action by the verb heats, 

[ 165 ] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



^; What is the passive voice? 

A: When the subject is presented as being acted upon. 

^; What is an example? 

A: The room is heated by the fire, in which the sub- 
ject, rooMy is acted upon. 

^; How is the passive voice formed ? 
A: By using forms of the verb be with the past par- 
ticiple of any required verb. 

^.* What occurs when the active is inverted to the 

passive? 
A: The object of the active verb becomes the subject 

of the passive verb. 

^.* What is an example? 

A: In the sentence above, room is the object of the 

active verb heats^ and becomes the subject of 

the passive verb is heated, 

^.* How is the active subject represented in the 

passive sentence? 
A: It is used with a preposition to show agency, thus 

by the fire with the passive verb shows the 

activity of the fire. 

§1; What name is given to the different manners of 

expression employed for verbs ? 
A: Moods. 

% What are these? 

A: The indicative, subjunctive, potential, imperative, 
and infinitive. 

% What does the indicative imply? 
A: Reality in the verbal idea. 
[166] 



THE VERB 



^; What are examples? 

A: He eats; he fell down; he will come. 

^; What does the subjunctive imply? 
A: A supposition. 

^.* What is an example? 

A: If you fall, you will hurt yourself. 

^; How is the subjunctive usually indicated? 
A: By an introductory word such as z/, ihoughy unUss, 
etc. 

^; What does the potential mood express? 
A: Desire, need or a possibility. 

^; What does the potential require? 
A: The use of auxiliaries, which are may, can, must, 
might, could, would and should. 

^; Are if, though, etc., used with the potential? 
A: They may be. 

^; When is the imperative used? 

A: In expressing an order or a supplication. 

^; What are examples? 

A: Bless us, O Lord; Be still. 

^; What of the infinitive mood ? 

A: This is the use of the verb in its broadest sense 
without limitation. 

% What is the sign of the infinitive ? 
A: The word to preceding it. 

^.* How may the infinitive be employed ? 
A: As the subject of another verb, or as the object of 
a verb or a preposition. 

[167] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



^; How is the time of the action of a verb indicated ? 
A: By the tense. 

^; What are the tenses ? 
A: Past, present and future. 

^; How are these tenses divided ? 

A: There are two divisions of each tense, one repre- 
senting the action as completed, which is called 
the perfect. 

^; What is the effect.? 

A: The formation of six tenses: present, present per- 
fect; past, past perfect; future, future perfect. 

^; What is an example of the present tense? 
A: He laughs. 

^; Of the present perfect ^ 

A: I have arrived, in which the action is completed in 
the present. 

^; Of the past tense .f^ 
A: The day was hot. 

^; Of the past perfect .f^ 

A: He had decided, in which the action is completed 
at a certain past time. 

% Of the future } 
A: He will die. 

^; What are the auxiliaries of the future.? 
A: Shall and will, 

^: Of the future perfect ? 

A: He will have fled, in which have indicates completion 
of the action. 
I 168] 



THE VERB 



^; Are there distinctive forms for all these tenses? 
A: Only in the indicative mood. 

^; How many subjunctive forms has the verb to be? 
A: Those for three tenses, present, present perfect and 
past. 

^; How many subjunctive forms have other verbs? 
A: Those for two tenses only, present and present 
perfect. 

^; What are used for other subjunctive tenses? 
A: Indicative forms. 

^; What tenses has the potential? 

A: Four, present, present perfect, past and past perfect. 

^; How many tenses has the imperative? 
A: One, present. 

^; How many has the infinitive? 
A: Two, present and perfect. 

^; What is another characteristic of the verb? 
A: It has person, either first, second or third according 
to its subject. 

% Has a verb number? 

A: Yes, it is singular or plural, in agreement with its 
subject. 

^: What are examples of person and number? 
A: I love, is first person singular; they love, is third 
person plural. 

^; Are there many changes of verb form for person 

and number? 
A: Almost none. 

C 169 ] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



^; What is the only distinct form for the first person 

singular? 
A: Jm, the form of the verb to be. 

^: Are there other special forms of the verb to be? 
A: Yes. 

^; Do other verbs show any special forms? 
A: Only a very few. 

^; What is the rule? 

A: The only changes are in terminations for the se.cond 
and third persons singular. 

^; What are these terminations ? 

A: St for the second person and s for the third person. 

^; What is an example? 

A: Thou lovesty he loves, 

^; What is the rule for agreement of verbs? 
A: A verb must always agree with its subject in person 
and number. 

^: What is a participle ? 

A: A form of the verb having the properties of a verb 
and also those of an adjective or noun. 

^.- What are the tenses of participles? 
A: Present and past. 

^; What is the sign of the present participle? 

A: The termination ing, which shows present action. 

^: What is an example? 

A: Givingy which is the present participle of the verb 

to give, 
[ 170 ] 



THE VERB 



^; What is the sign of the past participle? 

A: The termination ed most commonly, although 

there are other forms. 
^; What are examples? 
A: Lovedy learned^ played^ from the verbs to love^ to 

learn^ to play. 
^: What is effected by the use of auxiliaries with the 

participle? 
A: The two forms become six, being three for each 

voice. 
^; What are the auxiliaries used ? 
A: Having, being and having been. 

^; What are examples of the six participles? 

A: Present giving, past given, perfect having given, for 
the active voice; present being given, past given, 
perfect having been given for the passive voice. 

^; What is the concrete statement of all the forms of a 

verb called? 
A: The conjugation of verbs. 

% What does this include? 

A: Voice, mood, tense, person and number. 

^; Does the learning of one conjugation suffice for all 

the regular verbs? 
A: Yes. 

^; What must be specially learned? 
A: Certain forms of the irregular verbs. 

?l: What of the auxiliary to have? 

A: This has some irregularities which must be learned. 

% What are shall and wilU 

A: Auxiliaries of the future tense. 

C 171 ] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



^; What is the distinction? 

A: Shall is used for the first person and will for the 
second and third persons, when mere future 
action is indicated, but when purpose is em- 
phasized, this usage is reversed, will becoming 
the auxihary for the first person and shall for 
the second and third persons. 

^; What are variations of these two forms? 
A: Shalt and wilt for second person singular. 

^.* What are should and would? 

A: These are the past forms of shall and will^ and are 
used as auxiharies for the potential. 

^; What are other auxiliaries for the potential? 
A: May, can and must, 

^: What are the past forms for may and can? 

A: Might and could. 

^; What is distinctive of must? 

A: It has no change of form. 

^; What are the changes of may, can, might and could? 
A: They are changed for the second person singular 

may St, canst, mightst and couldst. 

% What is another auxiliary that has irregular form? 

A: Do, 

^: What is its use? 

A: It gives additional force to assertions, and also 

serves in the phrasing of questions. 
^; What are examples ? 
A: Do go; Do you like it? 
^; What verb has most irregularities? 
A: To he. 
[172] 



THE VERB 



^; What advantage do we bring to our study of this 

verb ? 
A: Familiarity with all its forms in our ordinary 

speech. 

^; How is the student to secure mastery of the ir 
regular verb forms ? 

A: By careful study of the list, which is not very long, 
and with which he is already familiar in great 
part from his knowledge of ordinary speech. 

^; What is to be noted concerning the participle? 

A: As a verb it may have an object and it may be 
modified by an adverb; it may serve as an ad- 
jective or a noun. 

^; What are examples? 

A: The present participle of the verb to fly is flying; 
it is an adjective in the phrase, the flying squad- 
ron; in the phrase, the squadron flying slowl}^ 
the verbal character permits the use of the 
adverb slowly, although it is still adjectival; in 
the phrase, the flying continued for hours, the 
participle serves as a noun, and is the subject 
of a verb; similarly, it might be the object of 
a verb or of a preposition. 

^; What is to be remembered particularly in con- 
nection with the participle? 

A: That it has a threefold nature, a verb, adjective 
and noun. 

^; Which of these three phases is the original and 

permanent quality? 
A: The verbal; the others appear only in certain 

relations. 

[173 ] 



Chapter V 

THE ADVERB 

Question: What is an adverb? 

Answer: A word that modifies a verb, adjective or 
another adverb. 

S>; What is an example? 

A: In the sentence, he cried loudly, loudly is an ad- 
verb, which modifies the verb cried; in the 
phrase very loudly, very is an adverb, which 
modifies the adverb loudly, 

^: What are the classes of adverbs? 
A: They are six: of place, time, manner, cause, num- 
ber and degree. 

^; What are adverbs of place? 

A: Those having to do with location, such as above, 
back, below, here, there, up, etc. 

% What are examples of adverbs of time? 

A: Again, always, never, often, when, etc. 

^.* What of adverbs of manner? 

A: They serve to define action; for example, badly, 
easily, how, no, not, thus, well, yes, etc. 

§1; What are adverbs of cause? 

A: Those concerned with the reason for an action, 

such as consequently^ hence, therefore, wherefore, 

why, etc. 

E174] 



THE ADVERB 



^; How are adverbs of number formed ? 
A: From the ordinals by using the suffix ly. 

^: What ar^ examples? 

J: Secondly, thirdly, fourthly, etc. 

^; When is the suffix not used ? 

A: In the case of first, since this is an adverb. 

^; What are adverbs of degree? 

A: Those defining the intensity of an action, such as 

almost, chiefly, enough, much more, most, only, 
partly, too, etc. 

^; What is another classification of adverbs? 
A: As interrogative adverbs, which are used in asking 
questions. 

^; What are examples? 

A: How, when, where, whether, why, etc. 

^; What is a relative adverb ? 

A: One joining a principal clause to a dependent 
clause. 

^; What is another name? 
A: Conjunctive adverbs. 

^; What are examples? 

A: How, now, since, so, when, whence, where, why, etc. 

^. In what way do adverbs resemble adjectives? 
A: They are sometimes compared. 

^; What are examples? 

A: More, most, less and least. 

^: Is er or est added to show the degree of comparison ? 
A: Only in a few cases, 

[175] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



^; What are examples? 

A: »Deep^ early ^ fast, hard, long, often, quick and soon, 
have comparatives in er and superlatives in 

est, 

^: Do adverbs have irregular forms of comparison? 

J: A very few do; worse is the comparative of badly 
or ill, and worst the superlative; farther and 
further, farthest and furthest are forms from 
far; last is an alternate superlative from late; 
less and least are degrees from little; more and 
most from much; next is an alternate superlative 
from near; better and Z'^fj^ are from well, 

^: Does an adverb ever stand independently? 
J: Yes. 

^; What is an example? 

A: The answer to the preceding questiono 



ri76] 



Chapter VI 

THE PREPOSITION 

Question: What is a preposition ? 

Answer: A word governing another word or phrase, 

called its object, by determining a relation with 

some antecedent. 

^; What is an example? 

A: In the sentence, the house stood by the river, by 
is a preposition, with river as its object, and it 
determines the relationship between the river 
and the house, which is the antecedent. 

§1; What of the antecedent.? 

A: It may be a noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, ad- 
verb or phrase. 

% What of the object ? 

A: It also may be any of the foregoing. 

^.- What is the case of a noun or pronoun governed 

by a preposition ? 
A: The objective case. 

^; What is a compound preposition ? 
A: When two or more prepositions are intimately 
joined in a phrase. 

^; What are examples? 

A: Because of, on account of, etc. 

[177] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



^; What is another form of preposition? 

A: Participles without a subject, such as excepting, 

^: Does a single object suffice for more than one 

preposition ? 
J: In some cases, as in the sentence, he looked out 

over the sea. 

^; May a preposition be used without an object? 
J: Yes, in an adverbial relation to a verb, as in the 
sentence: he stood up. 

^; What is a peculiarity of the passive voice in con- 
nection with the preposition ? 

J: The preposition governing the noun in the active 
is retained in the passive, though without an 
object, as the word at from the active sentence, 
the man scowled at him, is retained in the 
passive sentence, he was scowled at by th^ man. 



[178] 



Chapter VII 

THE CONJUNCTION 

Question: What is a conjunction? 

Answer: A word connecting various parts of a sentence. 

^; What are examples? 

A: Also, and, as, because, but, for, if, or, so, that, then, 
unless, what, when, while, yet, etc. . 

§1; What are two classes of conjunctions? 

A: They are coordinate when connecting equal parts 
of a sentence; subordinate when joining an 
inferior part of a sentence to a superior. 



[179] 



Chapter VIII 

THE INTERJECTION 

Question: What is an interjection ? 
Answer: A word used independently, usually either to 
express emotion or to arrest attention. 

% What are examples ? 
A: Ah and hello, 

^: What is a peculiarity of the interjection ? 

/I: It may stand alone forming a complete sentence. 

^: In what other way is the interjection employed ^ 
A: As an exclamation interposed in a sentence, with no 
grammatical relation to the other parts. 



[iSo] 



Chapter IX 

THE SENTENCE 

Question: What is a sentence ? 
Answer: A statement complete in itself. 

^; What are the signs of a sentence? 

A: The first word begins with a capital, and the end 

is shown by a period, exclamation mark or a 

question mark. 

^; How do sentences vary? 

A: They may be long and complex or short and simple. 

^.* What is an example of the simplest? 
A: A single word, such as ha! or go! 

^; What does the ordinary sentence contain ? 
A: A noun or pronoun and verb. 

^; What is an example? 
A: The boy ran. 

^; What is the subject? 

A: The noun or pronoun, or a phrase. 

^.- What is the predicate? 
A: The verb. 

^; What other words may be included in the sentence? 
A: Modifiers for either subject or predicate. 

[I8i] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



^; What is an example? 

A: The fat man eats heartily, in which the adjective 

jat qualifies the noun mauy and the adverb 

heartily modifies the verb eats, 

^; How are coordinate parts of a sentence connected ? 
A: By a conjunction. 

% What are such coordinate parts called? 
A: Clauses. 

^; What must any clause contain? 
A: Subject and predicate. 

§1; What is an example? 

A: In the sentence, man proposes, but God disposes, 
are two clauses, connected by the conjunction but. 

% What are the classes of clauses? 

A: Independent^ which are complete in themselves, and 
dependent^ which derive significance from a 
principal clause in the same sentence. 

^.- What are examples? 

A: The sentence above contains two independent 
clauses; in the sentence, we eat when we are 
hungry, the clause introduced by when is de- 
pendent. 

^; Must a dependent clause also contain its own 

subject and predicate? 
A: Yes. 

|>; What name is given to a group of words not con- 
taining a subject and predicate? 
A: A phrase. 

[182: 



THE SENTENCE 



^; To what are such phrases related? 

A: To either the subject or predicate of the sentence. 

^: What is an example? 

A: In the sentence, we honor a man of such great 
virtues, the phrase, 0/ such great virtues^ has the 
force of an adjective qualifying the noun man; 
in the sentence, the troops fought with utmost 
valor, the phrase with utmost valor serves as an 
adverbial modifier of the verb. 



[183] 



Chapter X 

PARSING 

Question: What is done in parsing a word? 
Answer: It is examined and described as to its prop- 
erties and its relationship to the sentence. 

^; What is the fundamental principle for parsing? 
A: The fact that a sentence ordinarily contains a sub- 
ject and predicate. 

^; What is first to be noted in parsing the sentence, the 

boy runs. 
A: The subject is boy and the predicate is runs, 

§1: How do we parse the subject ^03;? 

A: It is a noun, masculine gender, third person, singular 
number, nominative case, the subject of the 
verb runs; it is qualified by the definite article 
the. 

^; What of the predicate runs? 

A: It is ah intransitive verb; indicative mood, present 
tense, third person, singular number; it agrees 
in person and number with its subject boy: 

^; What would be the effect on the parsing if the 
sentence were changed to read, the bad boy runs 
fast ? 

A: The parsing would be as before for subject and 
predicate; in addition, it should be stated that 

C184] 



PARSING 



bad is an adjective qualifying the noun boy, 
th^t fast is an adverb modifying the verb runs, 

^; What is a complex sentence? 

J: One having a principal clause and a subordinate 
clause. 

^; What terms are used to distinguish the subject 

and predicate of a principal clause? 
J: They are termed the essential or the grammatical 

or the logical. 

^: Are such terms necessary? 

J: No, it is enough to call the subject and predicate 
of the principal clause the subject and predicate 
of the sentence, while referring to the subject 
and predicate of a dependent sentence as subject 
and predicate of the subordinate clause. 

^; What is to be noted concerning the subject of a sen- 
tence or of a subordinate clause? 

J: That it may be one noun or more, or one pronoun 
or more, or a combination of nouns and pronouns 
or any words used as nouns, such as an in- 
finitive, a participle or an adjective. 

% What are examples? 

J: In the sentence, men, women and children went 
hungry, the three nouns make the subject; in 
the sentence, you and I will go, the two pro- 
nouns make the subject. 



^; What is a name given to such coordinate nouns or 

pronouns? 
^: The compound subject. 

C 185 ] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



^; Does the same principle apply to either principal 

or subordinate clauses? 
A: Yes. 

^; What of the predicate? 

A: This also like the subject may be compound. 

^; What is an example? 

A: In the sentence, man eats, sleeps, works, and plays, 
the predicate has four verbs. 

^; How do grammarians often vary the term predicate ? 
A: They limit predicate to the verb alone and call 

any word or phrase associated with the verb the 

complementary predicate. 

^.' Is this distinction necessary? 

A: No; it is enough to call the whole the predicate, 
specifying as to the verbal part, and calling any 
other part by its particular character as ad- 
jectible, adverbial, etc. 

^.* What are the possible forms besides the verbal in 

the predicate? 
A: A noun in the nominative case or an adjective, or 

the object of a transitive verb, or a phrase. 

^; What are examples? 

A: He is a man, shows the noun in the nominative; 
the man is good, shows the adjective; the boy 
threw stones, shows the object of a transitive 
verb. 

^.* What is a term given by grammarians to the verb 

to be in the predicate? 
A: The copula, 
[186] 



PARSING 



^; What is the significance of this word ? 
A: That it is the agent in joining the subject and an 
adjectible or other predicate parts following it. 

^: Is the term necessary? 

A: No; it is sufficient to describe any form of to be 
as the verbal predicate. 



C187] 



Part II 
STUDY OF DETAILS 

Chapter I 
MASCULINE AND FEMININE FORMS 

Question: What is the rule as to the gender of EngHsh 

nouns ? 
Answer: That it depends on the meaning of the word, 

not on the form. 

^; Are there exceptions to this rule? 
A: Yes, a few words from foreign languages have 
distinctive endings for the genders. 

^; What are examples? 

A: The masculine and feminine forms are shown in: 

abbot, abbess; actor , actress; administrator, 
administratrix; adventurer, adventuress; count, 
countess; hero, heroine; master, mistress; tiger, 
tigress; traitor, traitor ess, 

^: What is the present tendency? 

A. To do away with the feminine form. 

^; W^hat are examples? 

A: Many prefer to use the words poet and author 
in place of poetess and authoress. 

C i88 ] 



Chapter II 

DISTINCTIVE FEATURES 

Question: How is the pronoun it commonly employed? 
Answer: As the subject of a verb without an antecedent. 

^; What is its character in such case? 
A: It is an indefinite noun. 

^; What are examples? 
A: It rains, it snows, etc. 

^; What is distinctive of the pronoun what? 
A: It never has an antecedent. 

^.- For what is the relative pronoun what substituted ? 
A: For that which, 

^; What is an example? 

A: In the sentence, See what you have done, the 

meaning is the same as in the sentence, See that 

which you have done. 

^.* What does this illustrate as to the antecedent of 

what? 
A: The statement is really contained in the w^ord 

itself, being the pronoun that of the phrase that 

which, the equivalent of what, 

^: What was a former use of the possessive pronouns 

mine and thine? 
A: Before any word beginning with a vowel or silent 

h. 

[189] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



^; How is their use now limited ? 

A: To a poetical style. 

^; Where is the old use illustrated ? 

A: Throughout the Bible. 

^.; What is another old usage shown in the Bible.? 

A: Te as nominative plural of the pronoun of the 

second person. 

^.* How was you formerly employed } 

A: For the objective case only. 

^; What is the modern practise? 

A: Ton is the form for both nominative and objective. 

^.* Is ye still employed ? 

A: Only occasionally in poetry. 

^; What forms of the possessive pronouns may be 

used without a noun? 
A: The alternate forms, mine, thine, ours, hers, theirs, 

also the possessive forms his and its. 

^: What are examples ? 

A: The money is mine; theirs was not a happy lot. 

^: What is an idiom? 

A: A peculiar construction in the language, not jus- 
tified by the rules of Grammar. 

^; What is an example? 

A: The common use of a double possessive, as in the 
sentence. He is a friend of Susan's. 

^; What is another idiomatic use? 

A: When the adjective else is used with certain pro- 
nouns such as any one or someone, the possessive 
is shown by 's added to else instead of to the 
pronoun. 
[ 190 ] 



DISTINCTIVE FEATURES 



^; Have grammarians objected to this use? 
A: Yes; they have insisted that we must say, any one's 
else^ etc., but we do not. 

^; Does Grammar make custom in speech? 
A: No; custom makes Grammar. 

^; What is to be noted concerning the pronouns each 

and other? 
A: They should be used in reference to two individuals, 

not for a larger number. 

^.- What is an example? 

A: In the sentence, They loved each other, we must 
suppose that only two persons are spoken of. 

^.* What pronouns should be employed when the in- 
dividuals referred to are more than two? 
A: One and another. 

^.- What is an example? 

A: They loved one another, is the correct form whether 
the persons number three or a thousand. 

^.* Are errors in the reference to the use of these pro- 
nouns common? 
A: Very. 

% What is a peculiarity of certain adjectives and 

adverbs ? 
A: They are incapable of comparison, from their 

nature. 

^; What are examples? 

A: Perpendicular^ square^ and the like; one thing may 
be more nearly perpendicular, or more nearly 
square than another but not more perpendicular 
or squarer. 

C 191 ] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



^; What are other examples? 
A: Fully compleiey perfect. 

^: Are deviations from the rule permissible? 
A: Not according to the grammarians, but they are 
sometimes very convenient. 

^; What is an example? 

J: More complete, which is shorter than more nearly 
complete, 

^: What is to be noted of better and best? 

A: That better, and not best should be used for the 

comparative degree, when only two things are 

considered. 

^; Is this rule always observed ? 

A: No; because best is a brisker and more emphatic 
word, and is thus preferred often over better, 

^: Is this preference for best justified? 
A: Perhaps; but it is better for the student to hold 
to the correct form. 

^; What is a split infinitive? 

A: It is when an adverb is introduced between to, 
the sign of the infinitive, and the verb. 

^; What is an example? 

A: To gladly go, . • 

^: Is this an error? 

A: It is so regarded by most grammarians. 

^.* Is there ever an advantage from the split infinitive? 
A: Its use is sometimes a help to clearness of meaning. 

^.* Is it, however, to be avoided by the student? 
A: Yes. 
C192] 



DISTINCTIVE FEATURES 



^; What is to be noted of certain conjunctions? 
A: They are used in pairs, sometimes in series. 

^; What are examples? 

A: Although and yet^ as and as^ as and sOy so and as, 
both and and, either and or, if and ^^^n, neither 
and no/*, no^c; and now, zvhether and or. 

^.* What is distinctive concerning either and or, and 

neither and nor.'^ 
y^. Either of the pairs should be used only in reference 

to two objects. 

^; What is a common error? 

A: The use of or in place of nor, after neither. 

% What is another mistake? 

A: Continuing with or when more than two objects 
are referred to. 

% What is an example of such error? 
A. Neither man or woman; neither man or woman or 
child. 

^.* What would the correct expressions be? 
A, Neither man nor woman; no man or woman or 
child. 

^; What is the distinction in the use of oh and 0? 

A. Oh is an independent exclamation, and has a comma 
or exclamation mark following it; it is only 
spelled with a capital at the beginning of a sen- 
tence; is used in direct address to a person or 
thing, and is not followed by punctuation, but 
it is always a capital. 

^.* What are examples ? 

A: Oh, what's the use? O Lord! 

[ 193 ] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



^; What is another idiom? 

A: The use of it with a singular verb followed by a 
predicate noun in the plural. 

^; What is an example? 
A: It was six days ago. 

^; What is the attitude of grammarians toward this 

idiom ? 
A: It has been opposed, but unsuccessfully. 

^; How can the practise be justified ? 

A: In some cases, the plural noun has really an ad- 
verbial force, as in the example given above; 
sometimes the plural noun is joined with other 
words, so that the efFect is of a singular. 

^; What is an example of the latter use? 
A: It was these things that I desired; all that follows 
the verb was expresses a single idea. 

^; What is the advantage of this use? 

A: The great convenience of it as the subject. 

^; What is a common error in the use of numeral and 

ordinal? 
A: An ordinal following a numeral. 

^; What is an example? 

A: The two first men in the line. 

^; What would be the correct form? 
A: The first two men in the line. 

^; Why is the error objectionable? 

A: Because it is an error of fact, not merely of grammar 

[194] 



DISTINCTIVE FEATURES 



^; What is to be noted concerning the use of the word 

only ? 
A: That the proper position is next to the word or words 

it modifies, whether following or preceding. 

^; What is the result if it be misplaced ? 

A: Ambiguity as to the meaning, or a wrong meaning. 

^; What is an example of the right use? 
A: Only good men love righteousness. 

^.- How would a wrong position cause doubt as to the 

meaning? 
A: In the sentence, Good men only love righteousness, 

the meaning might be as in the sentence above, 

or it might mean that good men love only 

righteousness. 

^; Is the word only often misplaced ? 
A: Yes, both in speaking and writing. 

^: What is a very common mistake in the number of 

a verb ? 
A: Often it has a diflPerent number from that of its 

subject, which is suggested by a noun preceding 

it. 

:^; What is an example? 

A: The boy with all his companions were lost on the 
prairie; the verb is plural from the influence of 
the plural noun companions preceding it, but the 
subject is boy^ a singular noun. 

^.* Is this error reversed ? 

A: Yes; a preceding singular noun may cause a singular 
verb when the actual subject is plural. 

[195] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



^; How may the student practise to correct this error? 

A: By detecting it in the speech or writings of others, 
he will learn to guard against his own use of it. 

^; What is an indirect object? 

A: It is an apparent object of a verb, which is really 
governed by a preposition that is not expressed. 

^; What is this preposition usually? 

A: Either to or for, 

^; What is an example of the indirect object? 

A: In the sentence, Tell me the truth, truth is the 
direct object of tell, me the indirect object. 

^.* Is there a separate form for the case of the indirect 
object ? 

A: No; the case is the objective, which is the same in 
form as the nominative, except for some pro- 
nouns. 

^; How may we show that the pronoun to is understood 

in such a sentence ? 
A: By expressing it; Tell to me the truth. 

^: What other verb beside to tell similarly has an in- 
direct object? 
A: To give. 

^: What verb has an indirect object governed by the 

preposition for understood ? 
A: To make. 

^; What is an example? 
A: Make me a suit. 

^: Can for be introduced without changing the 
meaning ? 



A: Yes, make a suit for me. 

[196] 



DISTINCTIVE FEATURES 



^; How may verbs of this sort be tested ? 
A: By expressing the preposition. 

^; What is a pecuharity of some verbs? 
A: Certain intransitive verbs may take an object to 
emphasize the meaning. 

^; What are examples .^^ 

A: He slept the sleep of the righteous; he lived a life 
of infamy. 

^; What name is sometimes given to such an object? 
A: The cognate object. 

^; What is another curious idiom? 

A: One connected with the verb to give and a few 
others, in which the active form of the verb with 
indirect object is changed to passive, the indirect 
object becoming the subject, while the direct 
object is retained. 

^; What constitutes the peculiarity in this con- 
struction ? 

A: The retention of what was the direct object in the 
passive sentence, for in the new sentence its 
position is anomalous. 

^; How IS it to be parsed ? 

A: It cannot be parsed; it is an idiomatic use. 

^.- What is an example? 

A: The idea of the active verb in the sentence. The 
doctor gave the man a drink, may be given a 
passive form. The man was given a drink by 
the doctor; the word drink in the new sentence is 
outside the grammatical rules and therefore many 

[197] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



grammarians condemn such a usage, but it is 
firmly established in the language. 

^; What name might be given to such a retained 

object ? 
A: An idiomatic object. 

^; What is a peculiarity in the association of some 
verbs and prepositions.^ 

A: Sometimes, when a prepositional phrase follows a 
transitive verb, a close relation is established 
between verb and preposition, so that the 
preposition, though deprived of its object, is 
retained with the verb when the latter is made 
passive. 

^; What is an example .^^ 

A: The patient was taken care of by the nurse, in 
which of is retained with the verb, though it has 
lost its object, which has now become the sub- 
ject of the passive verb. 

^; What is another example? 
A: The fellow was laughed at. 

^; What is the essential character of the preposition 

in this case? 
A: It is adverbial. 

^; What was a former custom ? 

A: To connect the verb and such preposition by a 
hyphen. 

^; How is this usage to be classed ? 
A: As an idiom of the language. 

[198] 



DISTINCTIVE FEATURES 



^; In the sentence, What did he say? what is the 

relation of the pronoun what to the verb ? 
A: It is the object. 

^; What is the case of the pronoun ? 
A: The objective case. 

^; Is there any difference in form for the pronouns 
which and what for the nominative and objective 
cases .^ 

A: No. 

% What is an example of the nominative .f^ 
A: What is it? 

^.- What is to be noted of the pronoun who as an in- 
terrogative ? 

A: That there are different forms for the nominative 
and the objective. 

^; What are examples? 

A: Who was it? shows the nominative; Whom did 
you meet? shows the objective. 

^: What is a common error in connection with this 

pronoun ? 
A: Using the nominative case at the beginning of a 

question, when a pronoun is actually the object 

of a following verb. 

% What is an example of this error.? 
A: Who did you meet ? 

^: Is this accepted as an idiom ? 

A: Although very common, this usage is condemned 
23 inexcusable. 

[199] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



^; What of the two forms who and whom for the 

relative pronoun? 
A: The like error is common, and it should be avoided. 

^; What is necessary? 

A: To bear constantly in mind the fact that when the 
pronoun, whether interrogative or relative, is the 
object of a verb it must have the form whom. 

§1; What is the case of pronouns in the predicate? 
A: The nominative. 

^.- What is of importance in this connection? 
A: Scrupulous care to use the nominative form when 
this differs from the objective. 

^.- What are examples of the correct form? 
A: It is I; It is she; It is they 

§1; What are forms to be avoided ? 
A: It is me; It is her; It is them. 

^; What is an excuse for the use of me instead of / in 

the predicate? 
A: It seems less self-assertive. 

^; Is a corresponding case used in another language? 
A: Yes, in the French, where it is grammatically 
accepted. 

^: Is it then permissible to use me thus in Enghsh? 
A: No. 

^: In what way does modesty influence grammar? 
A: It is the rule that a pronoun of the first person 
must follow any other pronoun. 

^; What are examples? 
A: You and I; him and me. 
[ 200 ] 



DISTINCTIVE FEATURES 



^; What are errors to be avoided ? 
A: I and you; me and him, etc. 

^; What is the rule as to the agreement of the verb 
when the subjects are pronouns of different 
persons ? 

A: When different persons are joined as the subject, 
the verb agrees with the second person rather 
than the third, and with the first rather than with 
the second. 

^; What is an example? 

A: Either you or he are mistaken; either you or I am 
mistaken. 

^.- What is seen to be the effect in thus applying the 

rule ? 
A: A very awkward construction. 

^.- What is advisable? 

A: To express the thought somewhat differently. 

^; How might this be done in the sentences above? 
A: By repetition of the verb; either you are mistaken, 
or he is; either you are mistaken or I am. 

^; What is an alternate method ? 

A: The use of an uninflected auxiliary. 

§1: What is an example? 

A: The use of must: Either you or he must be mis- 
taken; either you or I must be mistaken. 

^: What is a collective noun ? 

A: One singular in form, plural in meaning. 

^.* What are examples? 

A: Family, crowd, multitude. 

[201] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



.% What is to be noted concerning the verb having 
such a noun as subject? 

//; Often, the verb may be singular or plural accord- 
ing as the purpose is to express the subject's 
unity or its complexity. 

^; What are examples? 

A: The multitude was vast; the multitude were 
cheering. 

^; What is the difference? 

A: In the first, the unity of the mass determines the 
number of the verb, in the second the individuals 
composing the throng regulate the number of the 
verb. 

^j What is to be noted of certain plural words: 
A: That when singular in meaning their verb is 
singular. 

^; What are examples? 
A: Means and news. 

^: Does means take also a plural verb ? 

A: Yes, when it refers to more than one thing. 

^; What is a similar case? 

A: The singular of the verb is used with a plural 
subject specifying a sum of money, or the like. 

^.- What is an example? 

A: The thousand dollars had been spent. 

^; What is the explanation of this usage? 
A: The fact that the amount of money specified is 
actually regarded as a single sum. 
[ 202 ] 



DISTINCTIVE FEATURES 



^; What is an idiomatic use of the word many? 
A: It is used with a singular verb in such a sentence 
as, many a child is unhappy. 

^; What is the number of the subject in this sentence? 
A: The subject child is singular in form, but plural in 
idea because many qualifies it. 

^.- How would the idea be expressed without the 

idiomatic construction ? 
A: Many children are unhappy. 

^; What is another irregularity in connection with 

many ? 
A: When it is preceded by the indefinite article and an 

adjective. 

^; What is an example? 

A: A great many children are unhappy. 

^.* What is evident here? 

A: The singular idea of a is not continued in the sub- 
ject and verb. 

^; What is a similar idiomatic usage? 
A: A few is followed by a plural verb. 

^; What is the number of the verb when the subject 

is a number of nouns connected by and, 
A: The plural. 

§1: Is there an exception? 

A: Sometimes, the relationship of the nouns has the 
force of a singular, and the verb is then singular. 

^.' What is an example? 

A: This man and prince was truly noble, in which man 

and prince describe one person, and the verb is 

therefore singular. 

[ 203 ] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



^; What would be the meaning of the sentence, The 

man and prince were truly noble ? 
A: The plural form of the verb shows that two persons 

are spoken of. 

^; What is the effect sometimes when and is as- 
sociated with not as a conjunction in the subject? 

A: The subject may remain singular and take a singular 
verb. 

^; What is an example? 

A: Love, and not hate, moves the world, in which the 
verb is singular. 

^; What is the status of the phrase, and not hate? 
A: It is really an independent phrase, and the verb 

takes its number from the noun love, which is 

singular. 

% When a verb follows one noun of a compound sub- 
ject, and the other nouns of the subject come 
later in the sentence, what is the rule? 

A: The verb agrees in number with the noun pre- 
ceding it. 

^.* What are examples? 

A: The man was ready, and his wife and the children; 
At this interruption, the members of the con- 
gregation were profoundly shocked, and the 
clergyman also. 

% When the verb precedes a number of nouns forming 
a compound subject, what is the rule as to num- 
ber? 

./; It agrees with the first of the nouns. 

[204] 



DISTINCTIVE FEATURES 



^; When does this rule apply especially? 

A: When the verb is preceded by an introductory word. 

^; What is an example? 

A: There is sufficient space and all the materials 
necessary. 

^; May the plural verb be used in such case? 
A: Yes, if preferred. 

^; What is the rule for the number of the verb when it 

is the subject and there is a plural predicate? 
A: The verb is singular. 

^.- What is an example? 

A: It is the men of genius who fail oftenest. 

% What is a possible source of confusion ? 
A: The choice between adverb and adjective in certain 
cases. 

SI: What is the test? 

A: Whether the reference is to the subject or to the 
verb. 

^: What are examples? 

A: He advanced, calm in the face of peril; He ad- 
vanced calmly in the face of peril; in the first 
sentence calm is a predicate adjective, qualifying 
the pronoun he; in the second, calmly is an 
adverb modifying the verb. 

^; What is necessary in this connection ? 

A: The student must discriminate as to whether he 
means to qualify the subject or to modify the 
action of the verb; for the first, an adjective; 
for the second, an adverb. 

[205 ] 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



^; What is the difference between, I look sadly, and 

I look sad ? 
A: The first tells my manner of looking at another 

person or thing; the second tells how I look to 

another person. 

^.* What is a common error? 

A: This has to do with the verb to feel, which is often 

accompanied by an adverb when an adjective 

should be used. 

^; What is an example of the correct usage? 
A: I feel bad, in which the adjective qualifies myself y 
the unexpressed object of the verb. 

^; Is it correct to say: I feel badly? 

A: No; one might as well say, I feel hotly. 

^; Who are most frequently in error as to this usage? 

A: Those who have learned something as to the rela- 
tionship between verb and adverb and apply 
their knowledge in the wrong place. 

^; Is the word than a preposition ? 

A: No. 

^.- Why is it necessary to bear this fact in mind? 
A: To avoid errors in the case of pronouns following. 

^; What would be the effect on the case of a pronoun 

following if than were a preposition ? 
A: The pronoun would be in the objective case. 

^.* Since than is not a preposition, what regulates the 

case of the pronoun following ? 
A: The pronoun is nominative or objective, according 

as it is subject or object of a verb understood. 

[206] 



DISTINCTIVE FEATURES 



^; What is an example? 

A: They serve God more zealously than me, in which 
me is the object of the verb serve understood. 

^; What is another example? 

A: They serve God more zealously than I, in which / 
is the subject of the verb serve understood. 

^.* How may the student determine the case of the 

pronoun for any sentence? 
A: By supplying the verb that is understood, and 

noting whether the pronoun is subject or object of 

this verb. 

^.* What are two old idiomatic phrases in English? 
A: Had rather and had better, » 

^.* Is it correct to employ these? 
A: Yes. 

^; What are substitute forms? 

A: Would rather and would better, which have been 
widely advocated. 

^.* Wh2it of would rather? 

A: This newer form is permissible. 

^; What of would better? 

A: It is in common use but had better is to be preferred. 

^; What similar form is to be avoided? 
A: Would sooner. 



[207] 



Chapter III 

VULGARISMS 

Question: What is the commonest vulgarism? 
Answer: The use of dont^ instead of doesnt. 

^: When is dont proper? 

A: When it is a contraction of do not. 

^: When it is improper? 

A: When it is a contraction of does not, 

^; What is a phrase to be avoided ? 
A: He dont; or the hke contraction with any subject 
that is third person singular. 

^; What are other contractions that must be avoided? 
A: Aint and Haint. 

^; Why are these contractions objectionable? 
A: Because they are characteristic of the illiterate. 

^: What is a wrong use of them ? 
A: Its substitution for those. 

^: What is an example? 

A: I saw them fellers runnin'. 

^; What is to be noted? 

A: That them must never be used to qualify a noun. 

^; When is those sometimes wrongly used for that? 
A: Before a singular noun in a phrase containing a 
plural idea. 
[ 208 ] 



I 



VULGARISMS 



^; What is an example? 

A: A careless speaker says, those kind of men, when 
he should say, that kind of men. 

^; What is a common error in connection with the 

word real? 
A: It is used instead oi really before an adjective. 

^; What is an example.^ 
A: A real good man. 

^; What is the correct form? 
A: A really good man. 

^.* What is to be noted concerning the preposition 

between ? 
A: It is properly used in reference to only two persons 

or things. 

^.* What is the corresponding preposition for more than 

two? 
A: Among. 

^: What is an example of a proper phrase? 
A: Between you and me. 

% What is an example of an improper phrase? 
A: Between us three. 

^; How should this be expressed ? 
A: Among us three. 

^; What additional fact is to be noted in the phrase: 

between you and me? 
A: The pronoun me is in the objective case as an object 

of the preposition. 

^: What is an error often made in this connection? 
A: Between you and I. 

[ 209 1 



QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 



^; What is the cause of this error? 

A: A Httle learning, in which it has been discovered 
that it is wrong to say you and me^ when the 
pronouns are the subject of a verb; and this 
knowledge of the nominative is misapplied when 
the pronoun should be in the objective case. 

^; What are forms to be avoided ? 
A: You and me are friends; You and him are friends, 
etc.; between you and he, etc. 

^.* How is the case of the pronoun to be tested .? 

A: It must be in the nominative if it is the subject of a 

verb, in the objective if the object of a verb or 

preposition. 

^: What is to be noted in connection with the use of 

an auxiliary verb.f* 
A: It must be used always with a participle never with 

the past tense of another verb. 

^.- What is an example .f^ 

A: I have did it, is a gross error instead of: I have done 
it. 

^; What is the contrary fact.f^ 

A: The participle cannot be substituted for the past 
tense used without an auxiliary. 

^; What is an example of the correct form.? 
A: I did it. 

^; What is an example of the incorrect use of the 

participle ? 
A: I done it. 



[ 2IO ] 



VULGARISMS 



^; What is a common error? 

A: The substitution of the participle for the past saw; 

I seen^ he seeUy etc., instead of / saw^ he sazv^ 

etc. 

SI: How are blunders in this connection to be avoided? 
A: By careful study of the irregular verbs. 



Can] 



Chapter IV 

PUNCTUATION 

Question: What is the object of punctuation? 
Answer: Help toward clear understanding for the 
reader. 

^; What is the use of the comma? 

A: To separate subjects or predicates, to inclose 
clauses and phrases and words in apposition; 
after the name of a person addressed or his 
designation; for emphasis before conjunctions; 
to set off an inverted part of a sentence; to 
separate parts of an address or date, etc. 

^; What is to be noted concerning the last use? 
A: A comma is not placed between the month and the 
day of the month. 

^: What is the semicolon used for? 
A: Mainly between coordinate clauses in a compound 
sentence. 

^; What is the present tendency? 
A: Toward less use of the semicolon. 

§1: For what is the colon employed ? 

A: Chiefly to call attention to what follows. 

% What is the purpose of a period ? 
A: To close a sentence; it is used also after abbrevia- 
tions. 
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PUNCTUATION 



^; When is the interrogation mark used? 
A: It takes the place of a period at the end of a ques- 
tion. 

^; When is the exclamation mark used? 

A: It takes the place of a period at the end of an 
exclamatory sentence, and it is also used after 
an exclamation within the sentence. 

^; What use is made of the apostrophe? 
A: It stands in place of any letter omitted from a word, 
and it is also the sign of the possessive case. 

^. How is the hyphen used ? 

A: It connects the parts of a compound word and is 
placed after a syllable at the end of a line when 
the remainder of the word follows in the next line. 



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Chapter V 
CAPITALS 

Question: When must a capital letter be used ? 

Answer: In beginning a sentence, a line of poetry, the 
name of a month, or day of the week, the name of 
a person or place and any derivative adjective, 
any appellation of the Deity, a direct quotation, 
any chief word in a title or heading, an honorary 
title associated with a proper name; and also for 
the pronoun / and the interjection 0. 



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Chapter VI 

CONCLUSION 

Question: What is distinctive of the English language? 
Answer: The order of words in a sentence is the 
logical one. 

^; What is the effect of this? 

A: It suffices for clearness, so that highly inflected 
forms are not necessary as in other languages. 

SI: What is the prime requirement for the correct use 

of English ? 
A: Orderly thinking. 

^; Why does this effect follow? 

A: Because orderly thinking means a logical arrange- 
ment of ideas, and therefore simplicity and 
clearness in the expression of these ideas. 



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